Investigation of past archaeological landscapes using remote sensing and GIS: a multi-method case study from Mount Ida,Crete

Spatial analysis in geoarchaeological applications can be improved by implementing a wider set of geoecological parameters, in order to provide more precise results. The aim of the paper is to show how geoscientific ground-truth and techniques can be adopted for detailed archaeological studies using a comprehensive set of environmental variables that might have influenced ancient settlement patterns. The project focuses on spatial patterns of archaeological sites as well as Bronze Age communication paths in Central Crete by applying a multi-method approach (surveying, remote sensing, DEM analysis, least-cost analysis, candidate site detection, predictive modelling, etc.). In contrast to conventional archaeological GIS applications this enhanced strategy offers promising prospects regarding landscape and settlement modelling.     

Testing settlement models in the early Roman colonial landscapes of Venusia (291 B.C.), Cosa (273 B.C.) and Aesernia (263 B.C.)

This paper examines settlement density and settlement patterns in the Roman colonial territories of Venusia, Cosa and Aesernia, located in three different landscapes of central southern Italy (modern Basilicata, Tuscany and Molise). Using a series of GIS tools, we conducted a comparative analysis of the density and spatial distribution of sites dating to the Hellenistic period (ca. 350–50 b.c.). We used the legacy settlement data collected by previous large-scale, intensive, site-oriented field surveys to test the validity of two competing rural settlement models of early Roman colonization: the conventional model of neatly organized settlements regularly dispersed across the landscape and the recently proposed theory that colonists adopted a polynuclear settlement strategy. After calculating the extent to which the archaeological datasets conform to the regular or polynuclear model, we conclude that only a very small portion of the colonized areas actually meets traditional expectations regarding the organization of early colonial settlements. Our analyses show that the legacy survey data is more consistent with the polynuclear settlement theory, but the data also reveals some completely unexpected patterns, suggesting that early Roman colonial landscapes were more diverse than previously thought.     

Tracing Settlement Patterns and Channel Systems in Southern Mesopotamia Using Remote Sensing

Abstract

The integration of spatial datasets from historical satellite imagery, digital elevation models (DEMs), and past archaeological surveys provides new insights into the nature and remains of past landscape transformations. Using southern Mesopotamia as a case study, this article addresses, both quantitatively and qualitatively, long-held assumptions concerning the nature and relationship of settlement patterns and river channel systems in antiquity. GIS and image analysis are used to fill in gaps in the settlement record and propose a revised location for the Tigris River during most of antiquity. Given that only one-third of the central alluvial plain had been ground surveyed in southern Mesopotamia, how complete was our picture of landscape and settlement? How could gaps in settlement be interpreted? The present work in the area east of Baghdad suggests that archaeologists and historians have underestimated the nature and movements of the Tigris River. Satellite imagery can help reveal the location of the Tigris River prior to its settling into its modern course, shedding light on its potential role in the rise of early Mesopotamian agricultural societies. The work presented here proposes a methodology for unweaving and mapping preserved pieces of ancient landscapes, addressing larger issues of human modification of the landscape.     

The Iron Age landscape of Alcoi Valley,eastern Iberia: Agricultural intensification and sociopolitical dynamics

Abstract

New archaeological survey data are combined with previous evidence to examine the rural landscape during the Iberian Iron Age in the Valencia region of eastern Spain. One goal was to understand the settlement pattern and agricultural intensification through manuring. The second objective was to address the socioeconomic aspects of changes in the landscape. It is possible to trace the emergence of a hierarchical settlement pattern in the Iberian Iron Age in which large fortified settlements carried out the most important functions of control and exploitation of the territory, extending their authority over small rural villages and farmsteads. This pattern is associated with the complex socioeconomic structures and political organization of early Iberian states.     

Life and death at precolumbian Lavoutte,Saint Lucia,Lesser Antilles

Abstract

The Caribbean archaeological record requires immediate attention and protection. Development and natural forces have impacted archaeological sites, destroying or severely damaging them. The precolumbian site of Lavoutte, located in northern Saint Lucia, has been known as a major Late Ceramic Age (a.d. 1000–1500) settlement since the 1960s, but it has been damaged over the past decades by both natural and human processes. Multidisciplinary field and laboratory methodologies were implemented during a rescue project at the site from 2009 to 2010. This paper presents the results of collaborative efforts between local and international organizations. The first goal was to demonstrate the importance of protection and rescue of endangered archaeological sites. Secondly, we aimed to show that by adopting a multidisciplinary approach including artifact analysis, bioarchaeology, paleoenvironmental reconstruction, and geochemistry, severely damaged sites can be of significant informational value.     

Neandertal Behavior at the Middle Palaeolithic Site of Abric Romaní, Capellades,Spain

Abstract

This paper synthesizes the work carried out since 1983 at the Middle Palaeolithic site of Abric Romaní, Spain, reconstructing Neandertal behavioral and settlement patterns. The sedimentary features of this site give a high resolution of prehistoric occupational events. Large surface excavation (over 300 sq m) has been used to obtain a detailed picture of intrasite settlement patterns. The reconstruction of activities and their spatial and temporal organization is a key issue in the debate concerning the cultural capabilities of Neandertals versus anatomically modern human beings, and our interpretation integrates geoarchaeology, lithic technology, taphonomy, zooarchaeology, and anthropology. In this way, we explain the degree of diversity within a single Neandertal archaeological site, especially regarding lithic assemblage variability, faunal processing activities, and settlement patterns.     

WORKING ON THE RAILWAY: THE RISEHILL TUNNEL NAVVY CAMP,CUMBRIA

Abstract

An archaeological evaluation was undertaken by Channel 4's Time Team at the site of a navvy camp associated with the construction of Risehill Tunnel (also called Black Moss) on the Settle to Carlisle railway line, near Garsdale in Cumbria. The evaluation, comprising eight trenches, LiDAR and geophysical survey, highlighted the generally good preservation of the site, although many of the buildings appear to have been of timber with only rough stone foundations. Specialisation and division of different parts of the site between settlement and working areas was also seen. Contemporary documentary evidence has assisted with the interpretation of the archaeological remains, and revealed the extreme conditions which the workers and their families endured.     

Archaeology,conservation and the late twentieth-century village landscape: With particular reference to Westmorland and North Lancashire in northwest England

Abstract

This paper argues that the present landscape and village is of archaeological significance and is needed both to understand and to preserve a representative sample of the past. It explores the relationship between archaeological data and monument types, and landscape character. Landscape assessment, including attribute analysis, is advocated as an essential archaeological method separate from the process of value judgement and selectivity. It concludes that function and process are as important as period in determining conservation strategies, and the potential role of sustainable development is discussed. The importance of village plan forms, vernacular architecture, field and landholding patterns is stressed, together with the need to recognize the historical importance of industrial villages.     

Geoarchaeology and Archaeological Site Patterning on the Middle Gila River,Arizona

Abstract

Archaeological surveys and prehistoric settlement patterns are best interpreted when placed on a geomorphic map that defines the distribution and age of physical landforms. Survey data can thus be used to address questions of archaeological site visibility and synchronic and diachronic site patterning on the Gila River Indian Reservation, Arizona. A chronological series of alluvial and eolian landforms are defined on the reservation. The age of the landforms and underlying sediments has affected the preservation and visibility of the archaeological record. Further, late prehistoric Hohokam settlements (A.D. 700–1500) and their associated agricultural lands show a clear landform zonation and that the intensity of use of these landforms has changed over time.     

Neanderthal settlement patterns in Crimea: A landscape approach

Traditional settlement pattern analysis involves classifying sites within a region using previously established functional categories. Faunal and lithic data are frequently combined as archaeological indicators of site function. The results are interpreted in terms of a settlement system from which inferences about mobility patterns and social organization are drawn. The previously published site of Karabi Tamchin is used here as a spring-point for a discussion of the problems inherent with established site typologies and some of the settlement models that have been proposed in the past. The rich Middle Paleolithic archaeological record of Crimea is used to demonstrate the usefulness of the landscape approach as a means of supplementing existing information about Middle Paleolithic settlement patterns.     

Mounds,Towns, and their Surrounds: An Archaeological,Historical, and Geophysical Approach to Burial Mounds,Residential Space,and Cultural Landscapes of the Late Woodland Springwells Site (a.d. 800–1400) at Historic Fort Wayne,Detroit

Historic Fort Wayne is located on the Detroit River in a landscape of heavy industry and marginalized urban neighborhoods (figure 1). Geophysical survey south of the Fort Wayne Mound—a Late Woodland Period burial mound enclosed by the Fort—indicates that pre-contact residential structures may be preserved at the site. Residential sites with mortuary monuments are uncommon in southeastern Michigan and represent an opportunity to better understand variation in Late Woodland settlement. Our approach combines existing archaeological research, historical records, and non-invasive geophysical survey in a culturally sensitive Native American site context presently unavailable for conventional archaeological excavation. We examine archaeological and historical records from Springwells and Late Woodland period settlements in the region to contextualize geophysical evidence from the site. The research prioritizes protection of Native American heritage sites in urban contexts together with ongoing archaeological interpretation of the Late Woodland cultural Landscape.     

Temporal Patterns in Ceramic Production in the Berbati Valley,Greece

Abstract

This research explores temporal patterns in the procurement of raw materials for ceramic production, based mainly on material recovered in regional survey. The underlying premise is that potters in different cultural phases will preferentially exploit the same geological landscape for the most suitable raw materials, but different materials may be preferred depending upon the potter's technological traditions. A program of petrographic and chemical analyses was carried out on ceramics from the Berbati-Limnes Archaeological Survey, Argolid, Greece. Ceramic fabrics from several cultural phases were studied and compared with patterns of settlement within the valley. The results show that ceramics from regional surveys can be used to identify broad patterns of change in exploitation of the same landscape. In some cases these patterns correlate with changes in settlement and may indicate that different choices in raw material procurement mark the arrival of potters from outside the valley.     

Directional analysis of surface artefact distributions: a case study from the Murghab Delta, Turkmenistan

This paper investigates directional influences in the distribution of Bronze Age surface pottery in the northern Murghab Delta, Turkmenistan. Drawing upon a continuous dataset of pottery sherd counts obtained by intensive field survey, it examines the degree to which we can make sense of the archaeological processes at work in a heavily obstructed and dynamic landscape. In so doing, it makes use of two analytical methods that have rarely been used in archaeology: a) geostatistical analysis using variograms to investigate directional spatial autocorrelation in recorded sherd counts; and b) angular wavelet analysis in evaluating directional influences in the sherd distributions for particular chronological periods. While some kinds of directional influence can be identified visually, a quantitative approach is particularly useful in deconstructing such patterns. In this particular dataset, distinct but related directional processes can be identified and measured: a) the impact of the complex system of watercourses in the delta on both settlement and post-depositional processes; and b) recovery bias in the observations made during survey.     

Directional layouts in central lowland Maya settlement

This paper suggests the existence of non-random, directional patterns in the location of housemounds across the Late Classic Maya settlement landscape at Baking Pot, Belize, and then explores the wider implications of this patterning in the central Maya lowlands. It introduces an anisotropic method – based on nearest neighbour bearings and successive grid offsets – in order to explore possible rectilinear organisation in settlement layouts despite the presence of uneven and irregular patterns of archaeological dating and recovery. The results suggest a grid-like distribution of houseplots and, by implication, also a set of routes running throughout the housemound landscape and local Maya neighbourhoods during the site's Late and Terminal Classic history. Furthermore, different possible alignments in different parts of the site are tentatively regarded as an indication of shifting orientations to localised grids, following the shift in alignment of monumental architecture, as the settlement landscape expanded over time. Finally, we discuss the implications of these findings with respect to the broader interpretation of Maya settlement patterns.     

Archaeological investigations and OSL dating of terraces at Ramat Rahel,Israel

Abstract

Dating terraces, the most prominent feature of the agricultural landscape in many parts of the world, is a problem for archaeologists. This study presents an interdisciplinary approach that combines archaeological survey and excavations with direct sediment dating of terrace fill using Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL). The study focuses on Ramat Rahel, a multi-period site located in the southern outskirts of modern Jerusalem, Israel, where, on a defined terraced slope chosen for a small-scale landscape archaeology project, three main phases of terrace construction and use were identified. The earliest phase dates to the Late Byzantine/Early Islamic period, the second to medieval times, and the last to the Ottoman period. The results enable a comprehensive reconstruction of the changing local landscape through time and demonstrate the validity of OSL, when combined with archaeological investigations, as a reliable method for terrace dating.     

An island-wide assessment of the chronology of settlement and land use on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) based on radiocarbon data

The archaeological landscape on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) contains a palimpsest of surface archaeological features reflecting a long history of settlement and land use. The popular narrative of societal collapse prior to European contact relies on chronometric data from the late pre-European contact period and also cites major settlement shifts as evidence for societal collapse and socio-political reorganization. This paper explores the archaeological evidence for proposed changes in settlement by assessing the spatial and temporal distribution of radiocarbon determinations collected from archaeological and landscape contexts. A corpus of over 300 determinations is placed into an island-wide GIS database and analysed. The results of this study suggest that Rapa Nui settlement and land use exhibit continuity rather than punctuated, detrimental change during the late pre-European contact period.     

Settlement studies and the archaeological survey of North Norway — A discussion based on the survey of North Troms

By the end of the 1984 field season a systematic archaeological survey of the county of Troms was completed. At the same time a revision of the survey was started. The survey of Troms is part of a nation‐wide archaeological survey, connected with the production of an Economic Map of Norway. Though the validity of the methods and the results of this survey have been questioned, few attempts have been made at evaluating the archaeological data base produced by the survey. The current total revision of the survey makes this task even more urgent. The aim of this paper is to contribute towards such an evaluation, by utilizing the survey data from six North Troms municipalities in an attempt at constructing a history of settlement for this area.     

Remote Sensing and Archaeological Prospection in Apulia,Italy

Abstract

When deployed in combination with ground control, archaeological surface survey, and environmental research, remote sensing based upon high-resolution multispectral satellite imagery allows large areas to be evaluated efficiently by a small team of researchers and contributes to a better understanding of an archaeological landscape. In 2007 and 2008, we analyzed ca. 100 sq km of imagery centered on L'Amastuola, Italy. Combining the evaluation of high-resolution multispectral imagery with concurrent ground control led to the discovery of 29 sites and significant off-site scatters during about four weeks of fieldwork. Our analysis indicates that most of the detected features reflect geological conditions amenable to past human habitation rather than subsurface archaeological remains. Earlier fieldwork by the Murge Tableland Survey (MTS) provided independent definitions for various types of sites and a large sample of sites and off-site scatters in the study area. Comparison of our remote-sensing guided efforts with the results of that survey suggests that our success rate is too high to be explained by random association and also illuminates the strengths and weaknesses of the respective methods, underscoring the need to integrate satellite image analysis with ground control and surface survey.     

Precolumbian Settlements on Carriacou,West Indies

Abstract

The first systematic archaeological investigation of Precolumbian sites on the island of Carriacou in the West Indies provides a rich source of information regarding Amerindian settlement in the southern Caribbean. Herein, we report results from an island-wide survey and subsequent excavation at two large village sites—Grand Bay and Sabazan—that provide evidence for an intensive late Ceramic Age occupation dating between CAL. A.D. 400–1200. Results from four seasons of excavation at Grand Bay and two at Sabazan indicate that inhabitants colonized the island later than larger nearby islands (although an earlier settlement is possible); were engaged in inter-island and South American interactions as evidenced through analysis of pottery, stylistic artifacts, and faunal remains; exploited a variety of marine and terrestrial foods, including several animals rarely found in the Antilles that were translocated to the island from elsewhere; and buried their dead in and around shell middens and, at least once, under a habitable structure.