The implication of the metallurgical traditions associated with Chinese style wagons from the royal Xiongnu tomb at Golmod 2 in Mongolia

Lavishly decorated wagons excavated from royal Xiongnu burials are generally regarded as tribute items from China offered to Xiongnu elites, symbolizing important political and economic interactions between the Xiongnu state (209 BC–155 AD) and the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). This theory views such vehicles as having no relation to indigenous Xiongnu craftsmanship. Furthermore, specialized products delivered to the northern nomadic peoples from the Han state are often cited in support of the notion of Xiongnu dependency on foreign states for technological and political development. Expecting to find evidence of China’s traditional iron and bronze technology, we examined a number of key metallic components of these wagons excavated from the royal Xiongnu burial at Golmod 2 in central Mongolia, radiocarbon dated to 109 BC–AD 75. Surprisingly, the iron metallurgy in question was based primarily on the bloomery process while low tin bronze and arsenical copper alloys dominated the pertinent bronze production. These respective technological traditions are typical of Xiongnu manufacture but significantly different from traditional Han metallurgy. We interpret this evidence as suggesting the need for a more balanced evaluation of foreign influence on the rise and development of the Xiongnu state.     

匈奴腰饰牌及相关问题研究

匈奴腰饰牌特色鲜明,是匈奴文化的重要组成部分。对于没有文字的匈奴民族来说。这些腰饰牌是人们了解和认识匈奴社会以及匈奴民族与周边其他民族关系的一扇窗口。本文以匈奴遗迹出土腰饰牌为主要考察对象。辅以匈奴传世腰饰牌,通过考古类型学分析将其划分为A、B两大组群八个类型,初步勾勒出了匈奴腰饰牌的总体面貌和特征,指出了其中的地域差异。进而对匈奴腰饰牌进行了文化渊源之探讨。通过对匈奴遗迹和西汉墓葬出土腰饰牌的对比分析,总结出它们各自在空间分布和传播上的特点,认为A群组腰饰牌属于匈奴文化系统。它们源自早期草原文化带扣和骚饰牌。B群组腰饰牌存在着不同的文化系统Ba型腰饰牌属于匈奴文化系统,Bb型和Bd型腰饰牌属于汉文化系统,Bc型腰饰牌是这两大文化系统腰饰牌的混合体,且匈奴Ba型腰饰牌源自Bb型和Bd型腰饰牌。本文同时指出,中国北方地区是匈奴草原文化系统腰饰牌与汉文化系统腰饰牌的交汇地。     

RAVENS AND CROWS IN IRON AGE AND ROMAN BRITAIN

The raven and crow skeletons from Danebury are re‐examined, taking into account their taphonomy, their context and the associated finds. Raven and crow burials from other Iron Age and Roman sites are surveyed, again with a discussion of their context and associated finds where these could be ascertained. Taken together, the evidence makes it clear that most if not all were deliberate burials, often at the base of pits. We demonstrate how interpretations of such burials have changed, with zooarchaeologists initially proposing functional explanations and archaeologists readier to accept that the burials were deliberate. We go on to argue that the unique character of ravens and crows, including their tolerance of humans, their scavenging habits, and their voice, led to their playing an important role in Iron Age and Roman rites and beliefs.     

刘渊政权的出现与北疆民族主动认同"中国"的开始--中国古代疆域形成理论探讨之二

匈奴人刘渊建立的汉是北疆民族在中原地区建立的第一个政权。本文认为汉政权的出现既是匈奴人长期和汉族保持密切关系的结果,同时也是匈奴人认同“中国”,并进而主动进入中华民族形成历程的标志。汉政权的出现对中国古代疆域形成的影响是巨大的,不仅促进亍北疆民族之间的融合,推动了中国传统治边思想和方式的发展,而且也是边疆民族主动进入中华民族形成历程的开始,由此也奠定了北疆和中原地区融为一体的牢固基础。     

Technological traditions inferred from iron artefacts of the Xiongnu Empire in Mongolia

Iron objects excavated from sites of the Xiongnu Empire (3rd century BC–2nd century AD) in Mongolia have been examined using optical and scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the Xiongnu iron tradition may be characterized by the use of low carbon iron and carbon control by carburization. Cast iron was also used in the Xiongnu Empire, but only in very limited applications and with no convincing evidence of its use for the production of low carbon iron. The Xiongnu iron technology seems to have been established on the basis of the bloomery technique, without much influence from the Chinese style of technology, based on cast iron.     

REVISITING THE DEAD AT HELENA CROSSING,ARKANSAS

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a bioarchaeological reanalysis of the skeletal remains interred in the Middle Woodland burial mounds at the Helena Crossing site (3PH11). Based on current bioarchaeological methods, our reanalysis offers summaries of the sex and age estimates, pathologies, and trauma of the burials from Helena Crossing that are useful for their subsequent interpretation. We also document previously unrecognized evidence of postmortem processing in specific burials as evidenced by cut and chop marks that are associated with defleshing, disarticulating, and possibly mutilating particular corpses. We note the special attention paid to detaching and processing the mandibles and/or maxillas of several burials that indicates, along with evidence from other sites, that the mouth was an important symbolically charged orifice during the Middle Woodland period in the Eastern Woodlands.     

Investigation of Organic Materials From the ‘Royal’ Burials of Xiongnu (Noin‐Ula,Mongolia) by Srxrf and XAFS Methods

The burials of famous Xiongnu people are a unique source of information about Xiongnu culture, due to the variety of organic findings. SRXRF analysis of hair, clay, bones, teeth and woollen cloth was carried out. An anomalously high copper content was observed in all hair samples, whereas the levels of copper in bone and clay were low. To define the hair morphology and the elemental distribution in the hair cross‐section, high‐resolution X‐ray computed tomography (HRXCT) and energy‐dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used. The X‐ray absorption fine‐structure method (XAFS) was applied to determine the local copper environment. The majority of the copper species in the hair and enamel samples are present as Cu²⁺ cations in a distorted octahedral (4 + 2) coordination, surrounded by light ligands (oxygen/nitrogen). A similar distorted octahedral coordination is typical for both inorganic mixed oxide/hydroxide Cu nanosystems and metal–organic Cu complexes (with oxygen/nitrogen).     

Alabaster Beehive-Shaped Vessels from the Arabian Peninsula: Interpretations from a Comparative Study of Characteristics, Contexts and Associated Finds

This paper catalogues seventy-two vessels of one typologically distinct'beehive-shaped'form commonly found on sites in the Arabian peninsula. It shows that they are dated principally from the third century BC to the first century AD and are predominantly from burials. The majority have been found in southwest Arabia which is most probably their area of origin and many can be traced back to the Royal Tombs of'Awsan in Wadi Markha. Of interest are a pair of almost identical'double'vessels from Thaj and Mleiha in eastern Arabia and a group of'large'vessels indicating a temple context. From a study of their characteristics and contexts conclusions indicate that the original contents were tightly enclosed, of a dry or stain-free nature and that they were highly prized. The evidence together with some written sources give clues as to what these receptacles may have contained.     

Short communication: Two additional Egyptian Neolithic burials exhibiting unusual mortuary treatment of teeth

In a prior report we described human remains from the Neolithic cemetery at Gebel Ramlah, Egypt, with evidence of purposeful tooth replacement. Two crania, which were apparently disturbed by later burials, were found to contain several teeth that had been incorrectly reinserted into the jaws. Such treatment was suggested to be unique. Recent work at the site revealed a similarly unusual find. Two adult male skeletons, evidently displaced in antiquity, also had several teeth loosened from their jaws; however, instead of attempting to reinsert them, the Neolithic gravedigger(s) placed the teeth into the right orbit of one cranium and the nasal aperture of the other. Such placement, as well as the general state of these burials, ruled out subsequent looting or taphonomic factors as causative agents. We previously speculated that tooth replacement represented an attention to detail while attempting to re‐inter the remains in as complete a state as possible. This assumption may hold true for the present situation, but there are other plausible interpretations; for example, it might indicate animosity toward the individuals, an attempt at humour, or perhaps something less purposeful (e.g. they provided convenient receptacles). Whichever the case, the cemetery continues to yield heretofore unknown, and valuable, information about mortuary and other data relating to these prehistoric desert peoples. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ancient bronze technology and nomadic communities of the Middle Gobi Desert,Mongolia

The Xiongnu period of Mongolian prehistory (ca. 3rd century BC–AD 2nd century) is notable for the emergence of an expansive nomadic state and major changes in metallurgical and ceramic technologies. A number of Xiongnu period and pre-Xiongnu period bronze and bronze-related artifacts from the site at Baga Gazaryn Chuluu in the Middle Gobi province of Mongolia were examined for their chemical compositions and microstructures. They include finished objects, leftovers from casting, and pieces of slag from copper smelting and the assemblage likely represents a combination of local and regional production as well as long-distance exchange items. Results show that the entire bronze manufacturing process, from smelting to fabrication, is represented at BGC sites and bronze working may have been technologically self-sufficient, though ore sources are still uncertain. Our evidence suggests that this bronze assemblage was the result of two different technological traditions characterized by either the dominant use of arsenic, enforced apparently by restriction in tin supply, or the profuse use of both tin and lead. The arsenic-based tradition was observed in the majority of pre-Xiongnu period objects while the tin and lead recipes were verified in most objects dating to the Xiongnu period. This shift in bronze tradition may reflect changes in inter-regional interaction with frontier groups beyond the Gobi Desert and with the early state societies of China.     

Shell beads from Mississippian sites in the northern Yazoo Basin,Mississippi

ABSTRACT

In this paper, which focuses on the Mississippian period in the northern Yazoo Basin, Mississippi, I present some interesting findings from research done over the past century. In this area, most shell beads come from surface collections, or from excavated burials in cemeteries or ossuaries. Burial styles include extended, flexed, semi-flexed, and bundles, with very few cremations having been encountered. Bead burials also seem to reflect both common and elite people, and there are some interesting discoveries concerning association of shell beads. I will use 33 archaeologically investigated major sites as examples to illustrate an unexpected paucity of shell beads and other shell ornaments at some of the most heavily populated Mississippian sites in the Lower Mississippi Valley. Two other sites with shell beads in the uplands will be used for comparison.     

Kana Tamata or Feasts of Men: An Interdisciplinary Approach for Identifying Cannibalism in Prehistoric Fiji

By integrating osteological, taphonomic, archaeological and stable isotopic data, we test for cannibalism in the Lau Group, Fiji and discuss the potential underlying cause(s) and context(s) of this behaviour. First, we compare taphonomic and element representations of human skeletal material from two contexts in Fiji, examining human bone fragments from archaeological sites, including middens and burials in the Lau Island Group. Fourteen sites produced human remains. Only two of those sites included distinct human burial contexts, but in the remaining 12 sites, the human bone was recovered from middens or contexts where midden was mixed with possible secondary burials. A total of 262 number of identified specimens per species, representing an estimated 15 minimum number of individuals make up the Lau human assemblage. Second, we analysed bones contained in 20 individual human burials from four different sites that are housed at the Fiji Museum for comparative purposes. Third, we examine previously published stable isotopic (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) analysis of bone collagen to gauge protein consumption of likely cannibalised humans in midden contexts and potential cannibals from primary burials. We model a cannibalistic diet category within the context of isotopically measured Pacific Islands food groups and apply an isotopic mixing model to gauge plausible dietary contributions from six sources including human flesh. Isotopic mixing models of the Lauan samples illustrate a high diversity in reconstructed diets. The percent contribution of human flesh is low for all individual Lauans. We conclude that mortuary rituals evidenced by sharp‐force trauma may suggest non‐nutritive and non‐violent practices that may have included the consumption of small amounts of human flesh. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

安徽马鞍山上湖村东晋墓发掘简报

The Eastern Jill tombs in Shanghu village yielded a quite large corpus of data including spouted vessels, pingji （ceramic table）, （ceramic vessels with compartments） and brick corner columns. The structure of these burials is valuable for the research of developmental history of burials with corner column facility in the Lower Yangtze River valley.     

江苏淮安山头遗址墓地发掘简报

The Shantou sites is one of the typical-sites of the Qingliangang Neolithic Culture and was identified by the senior generation of archaeologists, like Yin Huanzhang and Zhao Qingfang in the Nanjing Museum. Several hundreds of burials in later periods are now suffering from looting activities. This preliminary report introduces the burials dating from the Eastern Hart Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty. During each period, burials were laid out regularly, representing as various types of burial furniture. Most of these burials were abundant in free funeral goods with typical eharaeteristies of different periods but styles pointing to complicate origins. The discovery of East Han Dynasty burials in Huai ＇an region, without any doubt, is going to play a siguificant role in the study of burial characteristics, funeral customs, arrangement of burial clusters, and even the local cultural history of this region.     

LAST ORDERS: CHOOSING POTTERY FOR FUNERALS IN ROMAN ESSEX

Summary.   This paper examines ceramic vessels from Roman-period funerary contexts in Essex. Using correspondence analysis, it charts changes in the choice of funerary pottery and isolates the elements in pottery assemblages that unite or differentiate sites. The paper finds that the status of sites can be distinguished on ceramic grounds, reflecting cultural differences in life. Jars and beakers are characteristic of settlement cemeteries, while cups are more typical of high-status burials. Flagons and samian ware are common between them. Underlying funerary traditions are rooted in continuity from the Late Iron Age, rather than post-conquest change. The study also suggests that funerary pottery was selected out of the supply intended for domestic use.     

论西安北周粟特人墓和罽宾人墓的葬制和葬俗

2000～2005年,在西安市北郊发掘了北周时期的安伽墓、史君墓、康业墓和李诞墓。前3座为粟特人的墓葬,后1座为厨宾国婆罗门后裔。这表明,西安市北郊一带不仅是北周粟特人的墓地,而且也是包括厨宾人在内的旅居中国的外来人的墓地。其葬制与葬俗对于中西文化交流与丝绸之路的研究,具有重要意义。     

ANALYSIS OF FIRST MILLENNIUM bc GLASS VESSELS AND BEADS FROM THE PICHVNARI NECROPOLIS,GEORGIA*

The Pichvnari necropolis on the Black Sea coast of Georgia lies in an area known in the late first millennium as ‘Colchis’, on part of the trade route leading to the Orient. The burials of the necropolis date to the late fifth century bc and frequently contain grave goods, including extremely well‐preserved polychrome glass beads and core‐formed vessels. This paper presents a study of these vessels both stylistically and archaeologically and using SEM–WDS and LA–ICPMS. It reveals that the vessels have compositional differences that may point to multiple manufacturing sites. One of the vessels appears stylistically unique and may exhibit one of the earliest uses of manganese as a decolorizer. Major and minor element data for the vessels suggest that they may belong to the same ‘Levantine’ group as many Roman glass objects, suggesting that a source of sand on the coast of the Levant could have been used in their production. The beads clearly show glass with both natron‐ and plant ash‐based flux with distinct rare earth compositions, showing multiple sites of production, some of which were probably either in the Middle East or the Indian subcontinent.     

The prehistoric drug trade: widespread consumption of cacao in Ancestral Pueblo and Hohokam communities in the American Southwest

We propose the existence of extensive trade and interaction among the peoples of the American Southwest and Mesoamerica. We base this inference on our detection of the widespread presence of theobromine, the biomarker for cacao, in 50 of 75 vessels used by Ancestral Puebloans (previously referred to as Anasazi) elites and non-elites from the Four Corners area and Hohokam elites of the Gila and Salt river valleys in the prehistoric American Southwest. We used a non-invasive, non-destructive aqueous sampling procedure that provides conservation advantages over the current methods that require crushing and boiling sherds or removing residues from vessel surfaces. Analysis of these samples by sensitive LC-MS instrumentation capable of detecting nanogram quantities of material revealed theobromine in non-local vessel forms found in elite burials in great house and platform mound sites as well as in local vessel forms used by non-elites living in small unit-pueblos. After elimination of plants native to the Southwest as the source of theobromine, we conclude that either Theobroma cacao or Theobroma Bicolor was imported from its homeland in the Mesoamerican tropical coastal lowlands. Our results are at odds with the current consensus that there was little systematic commerce between Mesoamerican and Southwestern polities. We suggest that cacao was exchanged for high quality turquoise such as that mined in the Cerrillos, New Mexico mining district. We conclude that, far from being isolated developmentally, this trade integrally tied populations in the American Southwest to the socio-political and economic activities of Mesoamerican states.     

Books of Life: Biography and Memory in a Bronze Age Barrow

An important round barrow with a primary Beaker interment and numerous secondary burials was excavated at Barnack, Cambridgeshire, in 1974–6. Reading the published report gives the impression that many of the secondary interments, by their location and attitude, reveal a memory of the primary rite. It is argued that the sequence of burials at Barnack reflects the genealogical history of the group which used the site. A series of events emerges, structured primarily by the concept of 'difference', which both retain the unique identities of the buried individuals and form a constructed narrative of society. Similar sequences are evident at other Bronze Age barrows in the east Midlands and elsewhere. Such sites seem to represent our closest approach to the 'embodied experiences' of prehistoric actors.     

Composition of white paste inlay on the pottery from sites of the 10th–8th centuries bce in the northern Pontic region

For the first time, the mineralogical–geochemical compositions of the white paste inlay found on vessels from sites (10th–8th centuries bce ) in the northern Pontic region are investigated. Samples of the white paste on vessels from settlements, burials of sedentary groups and graves of early nomads were analysed by means of scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. Between the 10th and eighth centuries bce , various innovations occurred in the working area. Iron processing technology and the manufacture of iron products also appeared. Other innovations were changes in the manufacturing technology of ceramics. A high-quality, polished/burnished surface and ornaments with white paste inlay are characteristic of this pottery. When collating white paste mixtures of different European sites, similarities in the preparation of white paste recipes for vessels from the Balkan and northern Pontic regions are evident. During the Early Iron Age, further changes in the manufacture of the white paste were discovered in the northern Pontic region, namely the application of high-temperature firing to obtain more resistant synthesized material such as calcium alumosilicates and silicates (wollastonite). The development of iron metallurgy in this period could provide a basis for the elaboration of new techniques in ceramic manufacture.