Consumption,exclusion and emotion: The social geographies of shopping

In recent years, a productive dialogue has developed between retail geographers and those social geographers concerned with the spatiality of consumption. This has resulted in a series of accounts of shopping that emphasize notions of consumer creativity. Nonetheless, this paper argues that many of these have struggled to reconcile the meaning of shopping with an understanding of the material parameters within which consumers operate. Recognizing that this tendency has distracted from the socio-spatial inequalities evident in retailing, the paper examines how shopping rituals are embedded in social relations that discourage particular shoppers from visiting certain retail locations. Drawing on extensive and intensive data derived in Coventry (UK), the paper questions the extent to which this geography of exclusion is the product of constraint, arguing that shopping is shaped by a more complex spatiality of inclusion and (self-) exclusion. Accordingly, the paper makes the case for a social geography of shopping that pays careful attention to the emotionally laden transactions played out in particular settings.     

The Pickup Problem: Consumers' Locational Preferences in Flow Interception

This article addresses the pickup problem , wherein patrons briefly interrupt their predetermined journeys to obtain a simple good, such as fast food or a video, and then resume their journeys. This is a problem from the class known as the flow-interception location problems. Traditional flow-interception location models (FILMs) are used to select service locations such that the intercepted flows are maximized. In these traditional models, only flow quantities are considered; these models do not consider where a pickup is made in a journey. However, in the real world, consumers often wish to obtain a product or service at or near a specific location along their trips. The pickup model (PUP) proposed here considers consumers' locational preferences, providing a much broader, more realistic approach than FILM (a special case of PUP) to problems in the private and public sectors. By considering which patrons are served where, PUP transforms the FILM into a flow-interception location-allocation model, providing a fruitful garden for further research. Geographic information systems and optimization engines are integrated to investigate the PUP model in real-world transportation systems. Reported findings demonstrate that the optimal locations identified by traditional models arise solely from network flow structure, whereas the optimal locations identified by PUP result from trade-offs between network flow structure and the importance of proximity to preferred locations. One important discovery is that PUP solutions are superior to those of traditional FILMs if consumers have locational preferences. Up-to-date, real-world transportation networks provide a realistic test-bed for this and other models of the flow-interception type.     

The Max-Min-Min Principle of Product Differentiation

We analyze two and three-dimensional variants of Hotelling's model of differentiated products. In our setup, consumers can place different importances on each product attribute; these are measured by weights on the disutility of distance in each dimension. Two firms play a two-stage game; they choose locations in stage 1 and prices in stage 2. We seek subgame-perfect equilibria. We find that all such equilibria have maximal differentiation in one dimension only; in all other dimensions they have minimum differentiation. An equilibrium with maximal differentiation in a certain dimension occurs when consumers place sufficient importance (weight) on that attribute. Thus, depending on the importance consumers place on each attribute, in two dimensions there is a max-min equilibrium, a min-max equilibrium, or both. In three dimensions, depending on the weights, there can be a max-min-min equilibrium, a min-max-min equilibrium, a min-min-max equilibrium, any two of these, or all three.     

Indecision Factors when Planning for Land Use Change

The 'Law of Anticipated Reactions' and its two extensions are applied to the Portuguese planning context in the decision-making process of choosing where to locate a major airport. My argument contends the fact that uncertainty, associated with indecision, in locating major infrastructure hubs constrains individual actions according to governments' perceived powers (uncertainty of preferences and uncertainty of sanctions). The relevance of knowing how to cope with these indecision factors in the location of major transportation hubs is important to establish ' a priori ' actions that can forecast urban problems and timely implement appropriate planning strategies. The two Portuguese municipalities most often mentioned as the most probable locations for the airport are used as case studies to analyse and discuss how indecision factors have been affecting land use change. The data sources used for the two municipalities are land use change, census information and number of development requirements. The data is contrasted with urban and regional plans to verify if indeed indecision associated with the location of this major airport was an important factor in speeding up land consumption in both areas.     

SPATIAL ASYMMETRIC DUOPOLY WITH AN APPLICATION TO BRUSSELS' AIRPORTS*

ABSTRACT In this paper, the problem of a city with access to two firms or facilities (shopping malls, airports, commercial districts) selling a differentiated product (shopping, flights) and/or offering a differentiated workplace is studied. Transport connections to one facility are congested. A model is presented for this asymmetric duopoly game that can be solved for a Nash equilibrium in prices and wages. A comparative statics analysis is used to illustrate the properties of the equilibrium. A numerical model is then applied to the two Brussels airports. Three stylized policies are implemented to address the congestion problem: expansion of transport capacity, congestion pricing, and a direct subsidy to the uncongested facility. Our results indicate that the degree of intrinsic differentiation between the two firms is crucial in determining the difference in profit and market share. Price and wage differences also depend on trip frequency and consumer preferences for diversity. Congestion pricing is the most effective policy tool but all three options are shown to have attractive attributes.     

The Optimal Nodal Location of Public Facilities With Price-Sensitive Demand

The purpose of this paper is to present some models for the location of public facilities in nodal networks that explicitly maximize social welfare by accounting for price-elastic demand functions. The models presented here are general; yet they are mathematically equivalent to the plant location problem and are therefore amenable to solution procedures developed for the plant location problem. The models presented here distinguish between two institutional environments that reflect the degree of power of the consumer to choose which facility to patronize. If consumers can be assigned arbitrarily to facilities and can be denied service, then the environment is one of public fiat. If consumers must be served at the facility of their choice, then a “serve-allcomers” environment exists. Separate models for each environment are specified, and the relationship between optimal assignments and pricing policies is developed.     

Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behavior Of Consumers

Two multidimensional scaling algorithms are used to externally measure cognitive maps of supermarket locations for a sample of sixty-one supermarket shoppers. Issues raised in the construction of the cognitive maps are discussed. The relationship between the derived cognitive maps and consumer behavior is compared to the relationship between physical maps and consumer behavior. Behavior is shown to be more closely related to cognitive maps. Differences in cognitive maps are defined and canonically correlated with consumers' socioeconomic and locational attributes. While aggregate cognitive maps are closely associated with physical maps, there is substantial variation between individual maps. This variation is related to shopping behavior and selected socioeconomic and locational characteristics of consumers.     

Planning Policies,Market Processes and Public Attitudes: Evidence from Central Perth

Australian central cities have undergone fundamental changes during the last decade. They have typically experienced massive office construction, while losing much of their residential communities, architectural and cultural heritage, retailing role and some recreational attractions. Government authorities have facilitated and participated in many central city projects. A metropolitan-wide survey conducted in Perth on these subjects shows increased dependence on the private car, increased preference for suburban living and shopping, but some willingness to consider central city living, a demand for further community participation in central city planning, and a preference for the future expansion of most non-office activities in the central area. The survey indentified notable gaps between government policies for the development of Perth's central area on one hand, and the preferences of Perth's residents on the other.     

替代抑或补充:网上购物与传统购物出行的关系研究

有关网上购物与传统购物的关系问题是当前电子商务领域的研究热点之一,但研究结论还不尽一致。许多人认为网上购物将替代传统购物方式,但是也有其他的观点表明应是一种促进或者补充的关系,甚至有人觉得这种影响是很小的。本文通过对大学生购书行为的调查,采用统计方法分析了网上购物对传统购物出行的影响作用。结果表明:总体上,网上购物对消费者传统购物出行的影响并不显著,网上购物还只是作为消费者原有购物出行的一种补充方式,并不会对大多数消费者的传统出行频率和出行距离造成明显的影响。一方面,网上信息浏览和网上购物对传统日常购物出行的影响主要表现为消费者日常出行频率和距离的缩减以及多目的出行频率的上升。另一方面,网上行为可能使消费者非日常出行频率增加,单次出行距离增长。总之,网上购物与传统购物出行的关系并不是简单的替代或者补充,而是要复杂地多。     

上海城市老年人日常购物活动空间研究

购物活动是老年人日常生活中主要的活动类型之一,对老年人日常购物空间的研究是理解老年人与其周围商业环境相互作用的关键,然而目前国内这方面研究才刚刚起步。本文以上海城市老年人日常活动问卷调查的第一手资料为基础,首先对数据进行汇总得出了上海城市老年人日常购物活动的发生频率、出行距离等总体特征。然后进一步细化,分别总结出各小区老年人的日常购物活动空间模式并进行对比分析,发现市中心老年人的日常购物活动空间比较紧凑,而郊区老年人的日常购物活动空间则相对分散。最后着重从上海市的商业空间及零售业态的变革、商业设施的可达性、老年人购物决策过程三个方面对这种差异性进行了解释。     

FUNCTION AND COMPETITION AMONG URBAN CENTERS*

ABSTRACT This paper uses a logit model of consumer choice to examine how changes in the spatial behavior of rural consumers will affect the commercial base of smaller urban places. Various socio-economic changes in a region can be expected to cause a number of behavioral changes, including changes in where people work and shop. The analysis presented in the paper emphasizes the importance of location to the commercial prospects of small trade centers as consumers become more spatially mobile and engage in more multipurpose shopping. Places that are centrally located have the best prospects for ensuring that functions are either maintained or suffer the least decline as a result of competition from higher-order centers. Remoter locations will be adversely affected by these competitive pressures.     

THE OPTIMAL LOCATIONS OF MULTIPLE BRIDGES,CONNECTING FACILITIES,OR PRODUCT VARIETIES*

ABSTRACT This paper considers the optimal locations of two or more facilities, and the optimal number of facilities, when trips are made in pairs. The results are the same as standard models of spatial competition when there is perfect matching, but not when there is random matching. The first interpretation is bridges across a river, with residential locations on one side matched perfectly or randomly to jobs on the other side. The second interpretation is connecting facilities, such as tennis courts or restaurants where pairs of consumers meet. The third interpretation is product differentiation, with husbands and wives jointly choosing from among varieties.     

A Micro-Econometric Store Choice Model Incorporating Multi- and Omni-Channel Shopping: The Case of Furniture Retailing in Germany

Online retailing and multi-/omni-channel shopping are gaining in importance. However, there is a significant lack of research focused on incorporating online shopping into models of spatial shopping behavior. The present study aims (1) to construct a store choice model which includes both physical and online stores as well as the opportunity for omni-channel shopping, and (2) to identify the main drivers of spatial shopping behavior given the availability of both channels. Based on a representative survey, this study employs a revealed-preference approach toward store choice and expenditures in furniture retailing. The statistical analysis is performed using a hurdle model approach, with the expenditures of individual consumers at (online or physical) furniture stores serving as the dependent variable. Results show that channel choice (online vs. offline) is mainly influenced by psychographic characteristics, place of residence, and age of the consumers. Store choice and expenditures are primarily explained by store features such as assortment size, omni-channel integration, and accessibility. This study demonstrates that e-shopping can be integrated into a store choice model and that both the modeling approach and the subsequent findings are of significance for retail companies and spatial planning.     

COMPETITIVE FACILITIES: MARKET SHARE AND LOCATION WITH RANDOM UTILITY*

ABSTRACT. A new approach is proposed for calculating the expected market share. It is assumed that consumers patronize a facility according to a utility function, selecting the facility with the highest utility value. However, consumers'ratings of the utility components are stochastic by some random distribution. Therefore, the buying power of customers located at the same point is divided among several facilities. A probability that a consumer patronizes a certain facility can be calculated. Consequently, the expected market share by competing facilities can be estimated. This calculation is more than 1,000 times faster than repeating a simulation enough times to achieve a reasonable accuracy. The distance decay calculated using the new approach is approximately exponential. A procedure for finding the optimal location anywhere in the plane for a new facility that maximizes the market share is also introduced.     

旅沪外国游客旅游选择行为研究

旅游者行为研究是旅游市场拓展、旅游资源开发、旅游规划的基础。本文根据对上海入境外国人市场结构和游客行为的亲身抽样调查资料,运用旅游地理学基本原理、心理学分析和比较分析法等研究方法,重点探讨了不同国家的旅沪外国游客对旅游资源、旅游方式、旅游饮食、旅游住宿、旅游购物品和旅游娱乐项目的选择偏好和旅游行为规律。分析结果如下：旅沪外国游客偏好文化古迹、山水风光和民俗风情、饮食烹调等旅游资源;以散客形式旅游的游客多于团队旅游的游客;在饮食选择中,偏好富有中国风味特色的饮食产品;在旅游购物品选择中,偏好工艺品、服饰品、丝绸纺织品和艺术品;对娱乐项目的选择,偏好民俗文化类和探险类娱乐项目;在住宿选择方面,喜爱地理位置优越、价格合理、安全有保障和设施配套齐全的饭店。     

Periodicity and Market Interactions

This paper develops two systems of modeling periodic shopping behavior. The first approach uses a system of Volterra equations to define interactions between populations of consumers and firms in a special market. The second approach develops the relationship between trip length, frequency, and time for consumers in the context of the place utility model. The final section investigates ways of integrating the two approaches.     

Ethical consumption? There's an app for that. Digital technologies and everyday consumption practices

Ethical consumption mobile phone apps are increasingly popular. These apps allow consumers to scan the barcodes of products they are considering purchasing and determine whether or not they align with their ethics. App technologies are often applauded for their potential to provide consumers with targeted, crowd-sourced information about products while shopping and to foster more political, and less individualistic, consumption practices by connecting users to one another and to campaigns. There is a growing field of scholarship conceptually examining the role of information and digital technologies in ethical consumption. However, there is little empirical research on how consumers engage with ethical consumption apps in everyday ways. Drawing on an in-depth study with 21 participants, this paper explores how app use mediates people's experiences of ethical consumption. We contend that the app design structures and limits how individuals engage in ethically motivated consumption and influences their conceptualizations of ethical consumption as a political practice. We conclude by illustrating that critically examining what it means to be “ethical” in a digital world is a crucial area of research for geographers, particularly as these ethics play out through the everyday use of mobile technologies.     

EMBEDDEDNESS AND THE (RE)MAKING OF RETAIL SPACE IN THE REALM OF MULTICHANNEL RETAILING: THE CASE OF MIGROS SANAL MARKET IN TURKEY

The purpose of this article is to investigate the value of the concept of embeddedness for economic geographers. Alongside the case study of the multichannel grocery retailing brand Migros in Turkey, the spatial impacts – in relational and physical terms – of digitalization and the integration of an online shop into the profile of a supermarket chain are investigated. In applying the concept of embeddedness the article seeks to understand these complex, diverse and uneven processes of (retail) restructurings that affect different dimensions and dynamics of networks, societies and spaces. In my case study I identify two dimensions of embeddedness processes: (1) embedding the online shop in the firm's routines and practices, whereby processes of transfer of knowledge and technology dominate; and (2) embedding online shopping in the customer's routines and practices, whereby processes of adaption to consumer culture dominate. These dimensions are reflexive and as such mirror ongoing negotiation processes between the two stakeholders. On one hand multichannel retailing thus not only alters where but also how people shop, and can result in new retail spaces like pick‐up stores. On the other hand it can be shown, that the “locations”, where online shopping of Migros is available, reproduce spatial variations of socio‐economic factors, such as income distribution or population density. As such, the concept of embeddedness is useful for economic geographers – also in the realm of e‐commerce – to unravel the interconnections of societal, organizational and spatial patterns as well as their variations across space. The study is based on qualitative interviews.     

WEST EDMONTON MALL: ENTREPRENEURIAL INNOVATION AND CONSUMER RESPONSE

West Edmonton Mall was developed and has maintained its position as Edmonton's primary focus of retailing, recreational, and leisure activity through innovative entrepreneurial skills and extensive promotions. These are viewed as necessarily concomitant to the size, location, and functional complexity of the mall relative to the size of the Edmonton market and the remainder of the city's retail structure. One strategy was to dominate the market by tempting consumers with the rewards of a complete shopping environment within the confines of one, carefully orchestrated retail complex. The success of this approach is evaluated through an examination of the entrepreneurial behaviour of the developer (Triple Five) in relation to the consumer spatial preferences of a sample of Edmontonians. From this evidence it is suggested that the mall's retail importance may not be as pervasive locally as is commonly thought. Consumer mobility and the intrinsic character of the retail structure are reasons suggested for this, both of which require further investigation and elaboration.     

Aires de marché et choix des destinations de consommation pour les achats réalisés au cours de la semaine – Le cas de la région de Québec

Since the early 1990s, big box stores have profoundly modified the retail structure of Canadian cities. This entails multiple consequences, beyond the mere competition between establishments, for the evolving relationships between diversity of retail forms, consumer behaviour and urban planning. These relationships are explored in the Québec Metropolitan Community, using detailed databases, including establishment directories, mobility surveys and a virtual road network, integrated into a regional GIS. Trade areas of commercial streets, shopping centers and big box stores are delineated and analyzed. Consumers' attributes, such as age, gender, type of household, mode of transport, which putatively influence the probability of patronizing one type of retail cluster compared to another type, are modelled using logistic regression. The influence of the relative location of cluster types on their capacity to attract consumers is also modelled in order to gain some understanding of the competition among and between types. The analysis suggests that, by and large, the growing number of big box stores has more negative consequences for shopping centres than they have for commercial streets. The study also clearly reveals the growing importance of shopping trips in the mobility profile of households and provides a knowledge base useful for urban planning.