The first archaeometric data on polychrome Iron Age glass from sites located in northern Italy

A large sample set of transparent and opaque glass artefacts recovered from Etruscan contexts in northern Italy (Bologna and Spina (FE) necropoleis) and dated to a period between the 6th and 4th century BC are analysed in this paper. Samples of highly decorated beads, spindle whorls and vessels of the ‘Mediterranean Group I’ (Alabastron, Oinochoes, Amphoriskos) were selected in order to determine whether these different glass artefacts were produced at the same manufacturing site. While the vessels almost certainly originate from Greece, the beads could derive from a more ancient local production ascertained at the site of Frattesina (Rovigo, Italy) and dated to the Bronze Age.     

The glass of Nogara (Verona): a “window” on production technology of mid-Medieval times in Northern Italy

The site of Nogara (province of Verona, Italy) provides valuable insights into the complexities of the glass industry in mid-Medieval times, due to its timing, which ranges mainly between the 10th and 11th centuries AD, and to the great quantity of glass findings, mainly tableware. In the present paper, the combination of archaeological, chemical and textural data allows us to identify production technologies in a time-interval perceived to be a period of technological transition for glass. In particular, the frequent occurrence of recycled natron glass and only a few glass samples made with soda plant ash indicate that recycling of earlier glass was common in inland Northern Italy in the 10th–11th centuries AD. In addition, blue and reticello decorations were obtained by recycling earlier glass mosaic tesserae, as shown by much Co, Cu, Sn, Sb and Pb and the presence of crystallised calcium antimonates. A few glass samples with chemical compositions intermediate between natron and soda plant ash glass were also identified, suggesting a gradual change in glass composition from natron-based towards soda ash-based production technology, which prevailed in the 13th-14th centuries. In conclusion, the difficulty in describing mid-Medieval glass as a well-defined entity, due to the great propensity for recycling earlier glass samples which causes variability in chemical compositions, particularly those of trace elements, is clearly documented here. In any case, this paper contributes to a new type of chrono-typological scanning and to more detailed knowledge of glass production technology during mid-Medieval times in Northern Italy, little found in the literature until now.     

Analysis of polychrome Iron Age glass vessels from Mediterranean I,II and III groups by LA-ICP-MS

In this work the analytical results obtained by ICP-MS with laser ablation solid sampling and SEM-EDS for some polychrome glass vessels from the Iron Age are presented and discussed. The samples, coming from Etruscan sites near Adria (Northern Italy), belong to the so-called Mediterranean Groups I, II and III and are dated from the 5th, 3rd and 2nd century B.C., respectively. To date, analytical data for only two sets of vessels of the Iron Age have been discussed in the literature. In spite of the low number of available samples, this is the first time that vessels of all three periods are analytically compared. Elemental concentration data show that the samples can be classified as low-magnesia-low potash (LMLK) soda-lime-silica glasses, with low phosphorus and titanium contents, in agreement with data for similar samples of the same age. Bivariate and multivariate analyses of the contents of many elements characterizing the siliceous sands showed three distinct sets corresponding to the three periods. Since the sets indicate different provenances of the sands it seems rational to assume that different glassmaking locations were involved. Chromophores and opacifiers of the blue bodies and the yellow, white and turquoise decorations of the vessels were analytically identified, while the nature of the corresponding ores was hypothesized.     

Provenance of marble sculptures and artifacts from the so-called Canopus and other buildings of “Villa Adriana” (Hadrian's villa – Tivoli,Italy)

The results of a minero-petrographic and isotopic study carried out on the marbles of statues and architectural elements belonging to several buildings on the “Hadrian's Villa” site (the so-called Canopus, the Peschiera, the Sala dei Pilastri Dorici and the Serapeum) are presented here as part of an ongoing archaeometric project which considers the determination of the provenance of all the marble decorations of the Villa complex. Analytical data indicate the prevailing presence of marmor lunense and the use of Pentelic and Thasian marbles for architectural elements in a few parts of the Sala dei Pilastri Dorici, the Peschiera and the Serapeum; no significant use is made of Proconnesian marble, probably the most inexpensive of the time. Analysis of sculptures from the Canopus showed that those of the Tiber and Nile gods were made of Parian marble, the Caryatids and Telamons of Pentelic marble and the Amazons of the precious white Dokymaean marble.     

Pollen-wood analysis at the Neapolis harbour site (1st–3rd century AD,southern Italy) and its archaeobotanical implications

Three Roman shipwrecks (Napoli A and Napoli C – 1st cent. AD; Napoli B – 2nd century AD) were recovered in the sandy-silt sediments representing the infilling of a protected inlet of Neapolis harbour (Naples, southern Italy). Extensive wood analysis suggests that a very attentive selection of species was made in shipbuilding, the choice of timber being related to wood technological properties and to the structural uses of the construction elements. Pollen data obtained from the coeval sedimentary layers revealed that all the timber taxa (apart from Picea/Larix) were present in the surroundings of the study area. The identified forest taxa are very common in the Mediterranean basin and thus the pollen-wood comparison was not able to define the location of the shipyards. Broad comparison with western Mediterranean wrecks evidenced the peculiarity of the Neapolis ships where the systematic use of both Juglans regia and Cupressus sempervirens was highlighted. Archaeological, biogeographical and archaeobotanical considerations suggest the local provenance of the ship C and constrain the possible origin area of both the ship Napoli A and Napoli B to central-southern Tyrrhenian coasts.     

Palaeovegetation from a Homo neanderthalensis occupation in Western Liguria: archaeopalynology of Madonna dell'Arma (San Remo,Italy)

This study presents a short local vegetation history of Western Liguria (San Remo), northwest Italy, based on a palynological analyses of an 8.30-m-long archaeological section in the dune covering Madonna dell'Arma cave. Madonna dell'Arma is one of the Mousterian caves currently located on the Ligurian coastal zone. The site contains Levallois-type Mousterian tools, four pieces of skull attributed to Homo neanderthalensis and fauna remains belonging to Rhinoceros mercki, Elephas sp. and Hippopotamus amphibius. This study is of interest as the site is situated in an area where data on palaeovegetation are scarce. In fact, the archaeopollen analyses of Madonna dell'Arma cave's surroundings provide a rare local picture of vegetation during the beginning of OIS 4, posterior to 73,100 yr BP.The palynological taxa are grouped into three vegetation units by PCA (principal components analysis). These data suggest a huge Mediterranean pre-steppic forest (Pinus, Quercus ilex and several herbs) colonizing the area during this substage. The adjacent valleys were colonized by a caducifoliate–alluvial forest and Mediterranean scrub vegetation. These vegetation characteristics suggest a semi-arid coastal climate with an increase of precipitation according to altitude. The PCA analyses of the palynological sections inside and outside the cave suggest a nearly continuous vegetation succession from OIS 5a to OIS 4.     

Characterization of prehispanic cosmetics found in a burial of the ancient city of Teotihuacan (Mexico)

The present paper reports the chemical data obtained on samples of pigmenting materials contained in 31 miniature vessels found in a burial found in Teopancazco, a multiethnic neighborhood center located in the southeastern sector of the archaeological site of Teotihuacan (Central Mexico) and the analytical protocol established for the complete characterization of these archaeological materials. For this purpose a multi-technique approach based on the combination of several non destructive and micro-destructive instrumental techniques, namely, light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy-X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), voltammetry of microparticles (VMP), X-ray microdiffraction (μXRD), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis spectrophotometry, FTIR spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been developed in an attempt to completely characterize these materials. These instrumental techniques provide reliable and complementary data including elemental and mineralogical composition, identification of functional groups as well as speciation studies of electroactive species. Among the most relevant findings, volcanic pyroclastic rocks and clayey soils, most probably, from the Teotihuacan valley as well as galena, jarosite and mica from other provenances in Mesoamerica, have been identified. Charcoal and Ocote resin have also been identified. The chemical composition of the samples is discussed with a view to the possible function as cosmetic materials and their use in funerary rites. The results have been critically compared with those others obtained in other ancient civilizations. The study carried out on the materials found in the burial 105 is especially relevant insofar it represents the first evidence, scientifically characterized, of the use of cosmetics in Mesoamerica at this early period (AD 200-550).     

The colourless glass of Iulia Felix

The present paper focuses on 85 colourless glass samples selected among the recycling cullet found in the Roman ship Iulia Felix, wrecked off the town of Grado (province of Udine, North Italy) in the first half of the 3rd century AD, with the aim of examining their chemical composition, investigating similarities within and between the three established group types (cups, plates, bottles), and comparing the chemical compositions of the Iulia Felix glass samples with groups reported in the literature for colourless glasses. Chemical analyses, performed by X-ray fluorescence and electron microprobe, indicate that the samples were all soda-lime–silica in composition, with natron as flux, according to typical Roman production technologies. Chemical data are treated by multivariate statistical tools, such as cluster analysis and the NPC test. Statistical analyses allow us to conclude that the Iulia Felix colourless glasses were produced by at least two different production technologies related to group type, confirming the trend recently identified in the literature. In addition, the trace element patterns (particularly those of Sr, Zr and Ba) suggest that beach sand with differing amounts of alkali feldspars was predominantly used as raw material, like those specifically mentioned by Pliny for glass production.     

The coloured glass of Iulia Felix

Research on the cargo of glass in the Roman ship Iulia Felix, wrecked off the town of Grado (province of Udine, North Italy) in the first half of the 3rd century AD and composed of recycling cullet carefully selected for colour and type, provided much information on Roman glass production technology. A combined approach, involving analytical, statistical, and archaeological evidence, included chemical analyses (X-ray fluorescence, electron microprobe), which indicated that the coloured samples were all soda-lime-silica in composition, with natron as flux, although cluster analysis identified many compositional groups. Comparisons among the compositional groups of the colourless glass, previously studied, and those of coloured glass showed that the production technologies of the colourless glass vessels constitute two well-defined technological end-members, also related to group types, into which those of the coloured glass samples fall. In particular, coloured glass samples—all bottles, low-status vessels—were produced with mainly beach siliceous-feldspar-calcareous sand. However, unlike the colourless type, strict control of raw materials and decolourising processes was not adopted, and recycling was also practised, as demonstrated by the Sb₂O₃, Cu and Pb patterns. In this context, a “recycling index” (RI)—[(Sb₂O₃)_X/(Sb₂O₃)_Ref] * 100—is proposed here for the first time, in order to quantify the extent of recycling of antimony colourless glass in the batch. RI is valid for glass containing abundant Sb from an end-member of colourless glass. In conclusion, although it cannot be stated unequivocally that the identified compositional trends are related to different production centres or different raw materials, the strong evidence of compositional variability among all the Iulia Felix glass samples, both colourless and coloured, supports the dispersed production model for Roman glassware and the common practice of recycling in Roman imperial times, especially for low-status vessels.     

Minateda rock shelters (Albacete) and post-palaeolithic art of the Mediterranean Basin in Spain: pigments,surfaces and patinas

The inorganic and organic fractions of two microsamples of prehistoric paint from the same site, the Minateda rock shelters, are analysed here for the first time. The two samples correspond to two rock shelters of different styles (Levantine and schematic) – Abrigo Grande de Minateda (The Great Rock Shelter of Minateda) and Abrigo del Barranco de la Mortaja (Del Barranco de la Mortaja Rock Shelter). Since its discovery, historiographical tradition has emphasised the Abrigo Grande de Minateda, with its magnificence and complexity, as emblematic of the origin and evolution of rock art in the Mediterranean Basin of the Iberian Peninsula (a UNESCO World Heritage Site). Four complementary techniques –Microphotography, Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), Raman Spectroscopy and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectroscopy (GC–MS)– were combined to identify and characterise the physicochemical properties of the paint and of the surface. We present an interpretation of the results that leads us to define complex taphonomic alterations beyond the usual distinction of layers that include the surface, pigments and patinas.     

THE DISCOVERY OF ANOMALOUSLY HIGH SILVER ABUNDANCES IN POTTERY FROM EARLY ROMAN EXCAVATION CONTEXTS IN JERUSALEM*

This is the first study on the differential distribution and concentrations of silver in ceramics recovered from archaeological excavations. The chemical compositions of 1174 pottery vessels from 38 Roman‐period sites in Israel have been determined. Unusually high and variable abundances of silver were discovered in pottery samples of all vessel types and chemical compositions from four distinct archaeological contexts dating to late first century bce to 70 ce Jerusalem. The large majority of the Jerusalem vessels could be distinguished by their silver abundances from all analysed pottery pieces recovered at rural sites outside Jerusalem, even when the pottery types and chemical compositions, except for silver, of pottery found within and outside Jerusalem were indistinguishable. The evidence is suggestive of a human origin for the high and variable silver abundances, and dispersion of the silver by aqueous transport. The differential silver concentrations found in excavated pottery from Jerusalem and other urban and rural sites suggest that attention to the distribution of silver in pottery from excavated contexts may be helpful for evaluating the nature and function of archaeological remains and patterns of urban contamination.     

随仲嬭加鼎的时代特征及其他

随仲嬭加鼎的发现具有重要意义,但其非考古发掘品,需要考察其制作年代。在楚系青铜器大背景下,本文通过对该鼎器形、纹饰、铭文以及工艺等时代特征的观察,并对比分析相关楚系青铜器,认为该鼎制作年代在春秋中期无疑。     

Chemical composition characterization of ancient glass finds from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Troesmis</Emphasis>—Turcoaia,Romania

This paper reports and discusses the chemical composition of 20 glass fragments discovered during the 2012 archeological survey at Troesmis (Turcoaia, Tulcea county, Romania) and dated to the Roman and the Byzantine/Early Medieval periods. The data were obtained by two external Ion beam analysis (IBA) methods—namely Particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and Particle-induced gamma-ray emission (PIGE)—and they were compared to the recognized compositional glass groups from the Mediterranean region during the first millennium AD. The Troesmis assemblage turned out to contain samples belonging to several distinct categories of ancient glass, obtained from different raw materials and manufacturing procedures. Some of the analyzed vitreous finds from Troesmis were the result of glass recycling, while others were identified as deriving from Roman glass vessels imported from the Levantine or Egyptian shores of the Mediterranean. This archeometric study brings additional arguments for the long-range commercial exchanges during the Roman period.     

Combining residue analysis of floors and ceramics for the study of activity areas at the Garum Shop at Pompeii

In this paper, we propose the application—for the first time in the Mediterranean area—of the combination of the study of chemical residues in floors and ceramics, with the aim of providing information about the activities carried out in archeological buildings. We chose the Garum Shop at Pompeii to test the method. In fact, due to the peculiarity of this archeological context, it provided an ideal case in which the activities performed are in part known, and the ceramic vessels recovered are still in situ. Floor samples were studied by means of spot tests developed in Mexico aimed at identifying the presence of phosphates, fatty acids, and protein residues, while the organic residues preserved in the ceramic matrix of amphorae, dolia, and other ceramic vessels were studied by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Moreover, we integrated the data obtained with specific studies directed at better identifying the solid residues found inside two of the amphorae studied: botanical studies of fruit stones recovered in a Dressel 20 amphora and the characterization of the lime preserved in an African amphora. The research allowed for the identification of the traces of some of the activities performed, such as cooking and producing garum in the floors of the building, and the use and re-use of amphorae and dolia before the Vesuvian eruption.     

THE SECTILIA PANELS OF FARAGOLA (ASCOLI SATRIANO,SOUTHERN ITALY): A MULTI‐ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE GREEN,MARBLED (GREEN AND YELLOW), BLUE AND BLACKISH GLASS SLABS

Analyses at the Cu–K, Fe–K and Mn–K edge were performed to study the green, marbled (green and yellow), blue and blackish (deep greyish olive green) glass slabs decorating three sectilia panels from the archaeological site of Faragola. Results indicate that all slabs were made by mixing siliceous sand with natron, sometimes probably mixed with small percentages of plant ash. Cu²⁺ and Pb antimonates should be responsible for the opaque green colours. The dark green and yellow portions of the marbled slabs are respectively comparable to the slabs comprising only one of these colours. Cu²⁺ together with Ca antimonates probably produced light blue slabs, whereas cobalt was used to produce dark blue slabs. We consider it possible that the abundance ratio of Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ and the complex Fe³⁺S^2? would have an effect on the blackish slabs. The contribution of Mn cannot be ascertained even if it could have played a role in darkening glass colour. The comparison between the chemical composition of Faragola samples and several glass reference groups provided no conclusive evidence of provenance; whereas, the presence of a secondary local workshop can be hypothesized.     

Disentangling long bones of foxes (Vulpes vulpes and Alopex lagopus) from arctic archaeological sites

To discern the presence of two anatomically close species within an archaeological assemblage is always a problem for the analyst. A particularly interesting case is the distinction between the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), which is often determined using non-rigorous criteria and producing results that must be regarded with caution. Classical methods for separating these two species and determining sexual dimorphism, and eventually the sex ratio, such as analyses using uni- and bivariate plots, are based on arbitrarily fixed limits between sexes. In this text, a more robust statistical method termed mixture analysis (MA) is used to determine the species of limb bones from foxes. First, the MA is applied to a sample of each species using metric data taken from a collection of present-day fox skeletons. Afterwards, the MA is applied to archaeological samples dated to the Dorset period and retrieved from the Tayara site (near Salluit, South Hudson Strait, Nunavik). The results clearly demonstrate that the greatest length (GL) of long bones, especially the humerus and tibia, is the best measurement for distinguishing the species, followed by the distal breadth and the proximal breadth; and that GL is better suited for sexing foxes. The results of MA applied to the Tayara site collection lead to the conclusion that the red fox is present along with the arctic fox among the assemblage, and that there is no fox body size change during the last two millennia in the Eastern Arctic.     

Plant remains and amphorae from the Roman harbour under Flacius Street in Pula (Istria,Croatia)

The aim of this archaeobotanical and archaeological research is to expand knowledge about Roman diet and plant cultivation in Istria and to compare it with similar localities on the Eastern Adriatic coast. We have also tried to find some new information about maritime trade routes in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. Out of 27 samples collected from an excavated Roman port in Flacius Street in Pula, in total, 9809 plant macrofossils were recovered, identified and analysed. The results of the analysis show that most of the plant remains belong to the group of fruit trees and nuts. The most abundant are the remains of Ficus carica, Pinus pinea, Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera, Rubus fruticosus agg. and Olea europaea subsp. europaea. These are all species that are widespread in the Mediterranean area and have likely always been consumed by the local population. The number of ruderal and weed species found is relatively high (31) in comparison with other plant categories (fruit trees and nuts; fruit collected from the wild; cereals; condiments; oil crops; vegetables and tubers; plants of fresh water environments; elements of maquis), but as they came to the site accidentally and not by targeted human activity, there are far fewer macrofossils of such plants than those of cultivated species. There were a few elements of evergreen forest vegetation and plants of aquatic habitats at the site (2 + 1), which suggests the existence of this type of vegetation in the area of the site in Roman times. Archaeobotanical comparisons of the site in Flacius Street with similar coastal Roman sites—Verige Bay on Veli Brijuni (first-fifth century ad), the port of Zaton near Nin (first-third century ad) and Caska Bay on the island of Pag (first and second century ad)—reveal considerable similarities, confirming the uniformity in nutrition and plant growth in the wider coastal area. Together with the two Roman ships, during the archaeological excavations of the Roman harbour and its layers, we collected over 2000 different archaeological artefacts out of which a large number was almost perfectly preserved. Some of the mentioned artefacts include ceramic amphorae, ceramic table- and kitchenware, ceramic lamps, different usable objects made of glass, wooden use objects, parts of ship’s equipment and other wooden tools, architecture elements from the nearby port as well as residential structures and remains of stone monuments. Because of the large amount of artefacts found at the site, the analysis of the artefacts and data processing are still in progress. As a contribution for recognizing organic remains, we isolated the amphorae whose purpose was the storage and maritime transportation of different food products and ingredients.     

Presence of the genus Cuon in upper Pleistocene and initial Holocene sites of the Iberian Peninsula: new remains identified in archaeological contexts of the Mediterranean region

The dhole (Cuon alpinus) has been documented on the Iberian Peninsula throughout the Middle and Upper Pleistocene in archaeological and palaeontological contexts. However, this is an uncommon species among the Iberian quaternary faunae as a whole. This paper focuses on the remains of the genus Cuon recovered in three different sites of the Iberian Mediterranean region and their morphological and osteometrical study. By comparing these with fourteen complete skeletons of Canis lupus, as well as with other remains of C. alpinus, we intend to highlight some anatomical and metrical differences between Cuon and Canis that, added to those already published, could be a functional base-line for the identification of this genus. The identification of this species is complex, especially in archaeological contexts, and in some cases the dhole has been identified as Canis or Canidae. Furthermore, this paper explores the chronology of the presence of the dhole in the Iberian Peninsula and the different contexts where these animals have been recovered from.     

From the modern to the archaeological: starch grains from millets and their wild relatives in China

Starch grains from 31 modern samples of millets derived from the seeds of 7 species within the genus Setaria and 2 species within the genus Panicum were analyzed to determine diagnostic morphological characteristics. Ancient starch grains recovered from a sample of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) excavated from the Cishan site (10.0-7.6 cal yr BP) in the North China Plain were then subjected to the same analyses to determine the differences in morphologies, if any, between modern and ancient samples. The data indicate that morphological features, and particularly surface and fissure features, will allow for solid identifications of ancient millet starches, while size classes will be helpful, but will not be dependable taxonomic indicators.     

THE SECTILIA PANELS OF FARAGOLA (ASCOLI SATRIANO,SOUTHERN ITALY): A MULTI‐ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE RED,ORANGE AND YELLOW GLASS SLABS*

SEM–EDS, EMPA, ICP–MS and ICP–OES were applied to the study of three sectilia panels made of red, orange and yellow glass slabs. In order to determine the chemical state of Cu, XAS was also performed. The results indicate that, with the exception of the red samples, all slabs were made by mixing a siliceous sand with natron. The red slabs show significant compositional differences with respect to K₂O and MgO contents, probably linked to the use of plant ashes as a source of alkali. The red, orange and yellow slabs are coloured by metallic copper, cuprite and Pb antimonates, respectively. The comparison between the chemical composition of the Faragola samples and several glass reference groups did not provide conclusive evidence of provenance.