A Segment is not a Monolith: evidence from the Howiesons Poort of Sibudu,South Africa

Segments from the Howiesons Poort of Sibudu, South Africa, can be separated into at least three populations based on quartz, hornfels and dolerite rocks used for their production. Length, breadth, thickness and tip cross-sectional areas are significantly different between segments made on the three rock types. Segments are not monoliths, and they were not intended as a single tool type, they were flexible enough to be mounted to shafts in a variety of ways. Several hafting strategies are evident, including the use of different adhesive recipes. Most segments were probably parts of hunting weapons, based on use trace analysis, but weapon types varied. Quartz segments have standardized shapes (short and deep), perhaps because they were hafted as transverse arrowheads. While hornfels and dolerite segments may on occasion also have been parts of projectiles, the large dolerite segments could sometimes have served as parts of spearheads, with two segments hafted back-to-back. Howiesons Poort segment technology is sophisticated; its makers appreciated distinct properties of rocks, their flaking, wear and impact possibilities. Further, they recognized the best sizes and shapes for use with each kind of weapon, they understood the qualities and applications of various adhesive recipes, and they knew how to make a variety of hafts from materials that included bone and wood.     

藤花落遗址出土石镞岩性的反射光谱图型分类研究

江苏连云港藤花落遗址出土了大量的石镞,多以泥板岩为主要的加工材料,其器型非常地多样化,可以看出当时的石镞工艺技术是有非常专业的生产体系。按其岩性的目测鉴定,全都是变质岩中的板岩,合计80件。透过反射光谱学反映石镞岩石总体的反射率大小以及光谱曲线斜率变化,用以辅助区分石镞的主要岩类,以达到分类的目的及定量统计分析。此次测试是藉由南京大学成矿作用国家重点实验室的Lambda900 UV/Vis/NIR光谱仪于密闭黑暗环境中所测试完成的。     

The origins of lithic projectile point technology: evidence from Africa,the Levant,and Europe

Projectile weaponry is a human cultural universal, but its origins and antiquity remain poorly understood. Stone- and bone-tipped projectile weapons have long been treated as emergent features of the "Upper Paleolithic" behavioral revolution. Recently it has been proposed that projectile technology was in widespread use among Homo sapiens populations in Africa during Middle Stone Age (MSA) times. One obstacle to researching the origins of projectile point technology is that the criteria archaeologists employ for recognizing plausible and implausible stone projectile points are largely subjective (overall tool shape, microwear traces). Tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) is a ballistically significant dimension that works well at discriminating North American stone projectile points (spearthrower dart tips and arrowheads) from spear points. This paper compares the TCSA values of ethnographic North American stone projectile points to hypothetical Middle and Upper Paleolithic stone projectile points from Africa, the Levant, and Europe. The results of this comparison do not support the hypothesis of widespread use of stone-tipped projectiles in Africa, the Levant, or Europe prior to 40 Ka. In the New World and in Australia, where we have the richest ethnographic record of stone projectile point use, these implements are largely employed in big-game hunting and in warfare. One or both of these factors may have played a role in the widespread adoption of stone projectile point technology after 40 Ka.     

楚地出土平头镞初探

平头镞是东周时期常见器物,但关于其名称、年代和用途一直不太清楚。本文对楚地出土平头镞的形制进行了初步整理,分为五型,主要流行于春秋晚期到战国中期。在此基础上,根据平头镞的出土位置和形制特征,结合有关文献,考证平头镞的用途为弋射用矢。     

Modeling ground slate knife production and implications for the study of household labor contributions to salmon fishing on the Pacific Northwest Coast

Despite longstanding anthropological concerns with the origins of intensive delayed-return subsistence economies and the timing of the development of increasingly complex political systems on the Northwest Coast, the use and production of slate knives—one of the most archaeologically visible tools used to process seasonally available salmon—has received little attention in the archaeological literature. This can be attributed, in part, to the persistence of artifact typologies that have failed to generate behavioral implications for variability in slate artifact assemblages. In this article, I use data derived from ethnographic, experimental, and actualistic research to develop an approach to the classification of slate artifacts expected of knife-production activities. Emphasis is placed on framing slate knife production as a temporally emergent and situated activity, but also as an operational sequence that can be modeled due to regularity in the decisions and motions expected of tool makers producing functionally specific tools. Using slate assemblages recovered during the partial excavation of seven Late and Contact period Coast Salish houses in southern British Columbia, I then evaluate and demonstrate the utility of this approach by considering variability in household labor contributions to salmon fishing.     

Open Warfare or the Odd Skirmish? Bell Beaker Violence in the North‐Eastern Iberian Peninsula

Archaeological examples of violence in prehistory have increased in recent years. The evidence, methodology employed and interpretation of the data have been diverse, but in each case the myth of the ‘peaceful past’ is questioned. This work provides new data on the issue from the north‐eastern Iberian Peninsula, associated with the Bell Beaker culture (c.2800–2350 cal BC). Material from two megalithic tombs, Can Gol I and Can Gol II (Barcelona Province), in particular a set of flint arrowheads, has been revisited. Use‐wear analysis on the arrowheads confirmed the presence of impact fractures. This indicates that the arrowheads were not funerary offerings, but that they entered the graves lodged in the bodies of the deceased. The data from the only site with evidence of massive death by violence in the neighbouring region (Costa de Can Martorell) reinforce the hypothesis of episodes of conflict and violence during prehistory. However, the interpretation of the nature of such violence remains open to debate: was it an act of warfare or an occasional skirmish? And is the image of the Bell Beaker warrior identified in other European contexts also applicable to this area?     

Characterization of prehispanic cosmetics found in a burial of the ancient city of Teotihuacan (Mexico)

The present paper reports the chemical data obtained on samples of pigmenting materials contained in 31 miniature vessels found in a burial found in Teopancazco, a multiethnic neighborhood center located in the southeastern sector of the archaeological site of Teotihuacan (Central Mexico) and the analytical protocol established for the complete characterization of these archaeological materials. For this purpose a multi-technique approach based on the combination of several non destructive and micro-destructive instrumental techniques, namely, light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy-X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), voltammetry of microparticles (VMP), X-ray microdiffraction (μXRD), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis spectrophotometry, FTIR spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been developed in an attempt to completely characterize these materials. These instrumental techniques provide reliable and complementary data including elemental and mineralogical composition, identification of functional groups as well as speciation studies of electroactive species. Among the most relevant findings, volcanic pyroclastic rocks and clayey soils, most probably, from the Teotihuacan valley as well as galena, jarosite and mica from other provenances in Mesoamerica, have been identified. Charcoal and Ocote resin have also been identified. The chemical composition of the samples is discussed with a view to the possible function as cosmetic materials and their use in funerary rites. The results have been critically compared with those others obtained in other ancient civilizations. The study carried out on the materials found in the burial 105 is especially relevant insofar it represents the first evidence, scientifically characterized, of the use of cosmetics in Mesoamerica at this early period (AD 200-550).     

Trilobate arrowheads at ed-Dur (U.A.E, Emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain)

This article discusses the trilobate arrowheads excavated at ed-Dur during the different campaigns. Special emphasis is placed on the trilobate or three-lobed type of arrowhead because these appear rather suddenly and are not widespread in southeastern Arabia. The broader cultural, geographical and historical framework of these arrowheads is sketched in order to place the ed-Dur material in context.     

Microwear Analysis of Retouched Glass Fragments from Fortlet Miñana,Azul, Argentina, 1860–1863

This paper presents the results of a microscopic analysis conducted on supposedly retouched glass fragments that were likely used as tools. The pieces were recovered in a series of excavations performed at the historical site of Fortlet Miñana (1860–1869), a military settlement used during the war against the Indians on the southern border of Buenos Aires province, Argentina. The use of glass as raw material in archaeological sites of the historic period has frequently been reported in the Pampas and Patagonian regions. In this paper we present a review of ethnohistoric and ethnographic sources concerning the use of glass side scrapers, end scrapers, and arrowheads by aboriginal groups throughout the world. In order to perform the analysis, the glass fragments from Fortlet Miñana were compared to a series of experimental pieces on which traces of deliberate use on two kinds of raw material, wood and hide, were identified. The experimental approach and the microscopic analysis demonstrate that the retouched glass fragments recovered at Fortlet Miñana were not used as tools. Therefore, we conclude that microscopic analysis is of significant use to all researchers working with materials of this kind.     

Egyptian sculptures from Imperial Rome. Non-destructive characterization of granitoid statues through macroscopic methodologies and in situ XRF analysis

Aegyptiaca-like Domitian’s obelisk is now decorating Bernini’s fountain on Piazza Navona or the Egyptian lions flanking Michelangelo’s stairs towards the Capitol figure prominently amidst Rome’s cultural heritage. Motivations for the import, contextualization, and copying of these objects during the Imperial Roman period are as heavily debated as they are ill understood. Provenance determination plays an important role in these discussions in terms of a (supposed) dichotomy between Egyptian (real) versus egyptianising (copy) but has only been applied stylistically and never been tested analytically. A scientific characterization of the materials themselves is even lacking altogether, as is an investigation into the cultural and symbolic meaning of the materials used. This paper is a first attempt to address these important lacunae on the basis of an explorative study of a selected sample of Egyptian statues from Rome. The identification and provenance attribution of the materials used for these statues are often problematic due to their relatively fine-grained nature and dark color. Therefore, a full non-destructive analysis of Egyptian statues in dark-colored rocks is presented in this study, with the stones evaluated by macroscopic examination and handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. The implemented methodology has allowed a distinction between greywacke and several varieties of granitoid rocks. In order to evaluate the potential for source attribution, a comparison was made between the results of our analyses and geochemical data for several granitoid rocks from Egypt. This has suggested Aswan as most likely source. The results presented here indicate that handheld XRF analysis can be used for the assessment of compositional variability in and potentially for the provenance of granitoid rocks, provided that a fine-grained area of the material can be measured on multiple locations, and if these values can be assessed on (in)consistencies with other published reference materials.     

Experimental use and quantitative performance analysis of triangular flakes (Levallois points) used as arrowheads

The invention and widespread use of projectile weaponry is a characteristic presumed to exist only with Homo sapiens. However, as finds of wooden material during the early development of projectile weapons are extremely rare, this remains a contentious topic. Recent work has proposed a series of ballistically-significant morphological characteristics of stone points that yield information about their potential use. Here we report on initial experimental approaches to quantifying the performance of relatively simple stone points as arrow armatures. Two experimental trials were performed using a series of 51 Levallois points. The first, against a uniform density target, was designed to give an overall indication of performance. The second, against a simulated animal carcass, demonstrated the durability of these points. The results of this study suggest that small Levallois points could have functioned as arrowheads, albeit ones likely to break after limited use. They also suggest that these points’ penetrating power is strongly controlled by their morphometric characteristics, most notably their perimeter. This latter finding refines a method for assessing hypothetical Paleolithic stone points on the basis of tip cross-sectional area previously proposed by others.     

Experimental evidence for lithic projectile injuries: improving identification of an under-recognised phenomenon

Between the Upper Palaeolithic and the spread of metallurgy stone-tipped projectiles were of great importance both for subsistence and as weapons. Whilst finds of embedded projectile points in human and animal bone are not uncommon, identifications of such wounds in the absence of embedded points are rare. Previous experimentation involving archaic projectiles has not examined the effects of stone-tipped projectiles on bone. This paper presents the results of experiments in which samples of animal bone were impacted with flint-tipped arrows. The results demonstrate that positive identifications can be made, both grossly and microscopically, of bony trauma caused by flint projectiles. In addition, flint projectiles are shown to often leave small embedded fragments, which can also be identified microscopically. These results compare well with archaeological examples of suspected ‘arrow wounds’ and the article demonstrates the practical application of this data in identifying such injuries. By facilitating the recognition of projectile trauma these findings will have significance both for the investigation of hunting strategies and levels of conflict amongst early human societies.     

The mechanical properties of macrolithic artifacts: a methodological background for functional analysis

Natural, technical and social factors led to the use of a wide range of rocks for the production of macrolithic artifacts during the later prehistory. In the case of some artifact types, such as the grinding stones, rocks with very different petrographic qualities appear. Analysis of the material behavior, as developed by material sciences, provides a tool which allows the translation of these petrographic characteristics into mechanical properties. Experiments with a group of rocks subjected to different forms of abrasion in industrial machines allow an evaluation of the adjustment between the mechanical properties of the rock and the functions for which they were chosen by prehistoric societies. Finally, the understanding of the mechanical properties of the raw materials together with their forms of exploitation, distribution and use allows the designation of social and economic meaning to the production systems linked to the macrolithic tools.     

东北地区先秦时期青铜镞研究

青铜镞为青铜时代的一种重要兵器.本文根据东北地区考古出土的青铜镞资料,将东北地区青铜时代的青铜镞分为有铤与有銎两大类,对其形制特点作了具体分析,并对整个青铜时代青铜镞的时代特征、分布与分区等方面进行了分析探讨,同时根据以上的分析对其所反映的文化内涵进行了分析.     

Celtic vitrified forts: Implications of a chemical-petrological study of glasses and source rocks

The term “vitrified forts” refers to remnants of stony fortifications of early Iron Age in which constituent rock fragments and boulders have been melted and/or welded together by heat, apparently in situ. The methods used are a matter of controversy, and even the question whether the firing was constructive or destructive is disputed. In this study we present bulk analyses of some twenty source rocks and of fifty glasses (in petrographic thin sections) from eleven sites and attempt to relate these data to the processes (and purposes) producing the observed sintering, welding and melting. The results are consistent with progressive partial, sometimes total, melting of the rocks used. In agreement with most previous investigators we conclude that no exotic rocks (although limited amounts of clays or organic debris cannot be excluded) were used as flux nor were easily fusible materials selected. On the other hand, simply burning an ordinary (of the later murus gallicus type) timber-laced wall cannot account for the evidence of strongly reducing conditions and sustained high temperatures, probably for days and in some cases well above 1000 °C. Rather, the fires seem to have been contained, perhaps by filling the space between the rocks in the timber framework with soil, clay and combustible materials, e.g. peat, brushwood and domestic debris. We cannot conclude whether the firing was accidental, or set by enemies or by the builders. In any case, the builders appear to have used more sophisticated techniques than previously believed to ensure the durability of their constructions.     

Evaluating the Relationship between Ceramic Wall Thickness and Heating Effectiveness,Fuel Efficiency,and Thermal Shock Resistance

ABSTRACT

In 1983, David Braun proposed that a shift from thicker- to thinner-walled cooking vessels in the midwestern United States was triggered by an increased dietary reliance on starchy grains (Braun 1983). Drawing on well-established principles of materials science (Van Vlack 1964), he suggested that, compared to thicker-walled vessels, thinner-walled ones would have been more thermally efficient and less likely to break from thermal shock. These attributes, he suggested, would have been advantageous for preparing seeds and grains that require lengthy cooking periods. Although consistent with materials science principles, Braun’s proposition has never been tested. In this paper, we present results of experiments undertaken to evaluate the relative cooking efficiency of thin- versus thick-walled vessels and consider the implications of these findings for understanding traditional ceramic technologies.     

Using finite element methods to analyze ancient architecture: an example from the North American Arctic

Developing theories of vernacular architecture in archaeology has been hindered by the lack of a defined methodology for studying ancient buildings, and the absence of information on the mechanical properties of construction materials uncommon in today's building practices. In this paper we use Finite Element Methods and recent research on the structural properties of whalebone to analyze the architecture of Thule semi-subterranean houses. These unique dwellings were constructed and used by the ancestors of Inuit/Eskimo peoples in the Canadian Arctic and Greenland. Little is known about how they were designed and constructed because few have ever been discovered intact. The substantial weight of whalebone roof frames suggests that some designs would have performed better than others. Poorly planned houses, or the use of whalebone in a symbolic rather than strictly utilitarian capacity, may have resulted in higher maintenance costs, thereby shortening their anticipated use life. In extreme cases, errors in design, or the failure of materials may have caused dwellings to collapse, resulting in injuries or possibly even death. We demonstrate through this case study that Finite Element Methods constitutes an effective methodology for studying ancient buildings, with the proviso that more research is needed on the mechanical properties of building materials used in the past.     

老虎山文化的扩张与对外影响

大约以公元前2200年为界, 老虎山文化可分为前、后两大期.前期稳定发展,对外影响有限;后期向南强烈扩张,其陶双鋬鬲、卜骨和细石器镞更流播至黄河中下游广大地区.老虎山文化后期对外扩张的加强和这一时期气候日渐干冷有关.     

New experimental data on the distance of sling projectiles

The range of stones cast by slings used in the past is debated. In the Central Andes, slings are asserted to be important weapons of prehispanic war, and have been recovered archaeologically. Rolled river cobbles and stones presumed to be slingstones found at fortified hilltop archaeological sites are presented as evidence that slings were used at these fortifications. Yet sling use has not been adequately tested at hillforts. Experiments conducted in Europe by a novice slinger have attempted to illuminate the range of sling cast stones at ancient hillforts. Data acquired from native slingers is necessary to more accurately assess distances achieved by projectiles launched by slings. We present data from sling experiments carried out in Puno, Perú among Quechua-speaking herders who are experienced slingers. The results demonstrate that a prior model of the maximum theoretical distance of sling cast stones underestimates their range. Results also show significant differences in the use of slings by men and women, and by different age groups. These new data permit a better approximation of warfare that has bearing on our interpretation of fortified sites.     

The ‘bullets to water’ belief complex: a pan-southern African cognate epistemology for protective medicines and the control of projectiles

Remarkable similarities across colonial encounters where Africans believed projectiles could be influenced by ritual practices (medicines, behaviours, observances) demand enquiry into their conception and trajectory. Although suggestion of pan-subcontinental phenomena may elicit suspicion of a generalisation, here evidence is examined from the late-independent and colonial periods that shows that a general belief, held cognate between groups, may indeed have existed. The focus is on precolonial¹ southern African beliefs in the manipulation of projectiles and how these may have affected ritual responses to firearms during colonisation. At least a millennium of interactions between hunters, herders and farmers appear to have resulted in commonly held beliefs, albeit with differential emphases. From first contact, and into sustained colonisation, it became necessary for Africans to highlight and/or adapt indigenous beliefs as mechanisms by which to cope with firearms and settler aggressive expansion.