Sanctions and tourism: effects,complexities and research

Abstract

Despite the growing use of sanctions as a post-Cold War foreign policy instrument, there is limited research on sanctions in a tourism context despite their substantial impact on destinations and tourist flows. Although there is significant research on sanctions in political science, international relations, economics, and public policy, very few studies explicitly examine the effect of sanctions on tourism. This study therefore examines the intricate geopolitical relationship between sanctions and tourism via a scoping review of relevant literature. Each of the four main types of sanctions that were identified: financial, sectoral, diplomatic and individual, have different implications for tourism at various scales. The findings show that tourism is profoundly affected by sanctions impacting tourism and hospitality businesses and destination image, severely restricting international travel, and disrupting financial investment and supply chains. More comprehensive sanctions may lead to substantial economic and personal hardship in destinations as well as indirect effects including decline in the value of currency and inflationary pressures. Nevertheless, despite the development of smart and targeted sanctions they rarely affect the coercive capacity of the targeted government and induce political behavioural change. Resistive economies can develop in response to sanctions in which domestic tourism assumes greater significance as a result of reductions in international mobility. Some destinations facing sanctions also focus on specific international markets from non-sanctioning countries as well as a country’s diaspora. Overall, the study of sanctions deepens knowledge of the interrelationships between geopolitics, foreign policy and tourism and its ramifications for destinations. Significant gaps in knowledge for future research include the role of domestic politics in influencing sanctions policy, the selection of tourism as a specific target for sanctions, and the development of destination adaptation strategies to sanctions.     

Sustainability of the tourist supply chain and governance in an insular biosphere reserve destination: the perspective of tourist accommodation

ABSTRACT

Small islands in peripheral regions are currently perceived as attractive tourist destinations. Governance plays an important role as a strategy for the revival of such destinations to achieve a more productive, environmental, social and sustainable management structure. ‘Good’ governance of a destination depends on all the actors involved in the tourism network. Such governance requires a redefinition of relations between government and society and minimal boundaries between public and private sectors. This paper has analysed the level of implementation of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in a tourist destination that is a biosphere reserve (BR), the island of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain), from a comprehensive approach involving a tourism supply chain (TSC) with private and public agents. The focal firms analysed within the TSC have been tourist accommodation establishments in Fuerteventura. The paper shows that the level of involvement of tourist accommodation in CSR is positive. However, this involvement is not sufficiently high to meet the requirements of a destination designated as a BR. Therefore, coordination policies should be developed that promote governance systems and further enhance sustainability in the destination.     

The aeromobile tourist gaze: understanding tourism ‘from above’

ABSTRACT

While the impact of aeromobility on the growth of tourism and its destinations is well documented, the role of aeromobility in the process of experiencing and shaping place with specific regard to tourist destinations has received little attention from scholars. With the growth of commercial aviation and the increasingly mundane nature of the experience within mass tourism, I draw attention to the touristic experience of flying as the activity beyond its role in arriving at the destination. After a brief review of the genealogy of aeromobility and tourism, I reflect on examples of tourist aeromobility in Cape Town, South Africa in order to theorise the aeromobile tourist gaze. This paper analyses mobile testimonies from online travel reviews from airborne tourists performing helicopter ‘flips’ over Cape Town. Results highlight the need to focus on flying as tourism itself while they illustrate the role it plays in the aeromobile tourist gaze, a unique perspective and experience of the tourism destination as ‘tourism from above’ that emerges from the touristic dimensions of flight including the destination, the flying device and flight route. The findings underscore the role of flying-as-tourism. The aeromobile tourist gaze thus spectacularises the destination and disrupts the relationship between tourists and place.     

Marketing Destinations with Prolonged Negative Images: Towards a Theoretical Model

Abstract

While there is a great deal of research on destination branding in general, the study of tourism marketing that deals specifically with destinations suffering from prolonged image problems is less well developed. We integrated theories from crisis communication, image restoration and destination marketing to examine media strategies used by such destinations to attract tourism, and then classified them. We utilized qualitative content analysis of tourism campaigns for destinations – primarily in problematic areas such as the Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe – that appeared in international tourism magazines, destinations’ websites and video-sharing websites. We classified two approaches of media strategies: the ‘cosmetic approach’, relating to strategies that focus mainly on altering the destination's image and the ‘strategic approach’, relating to strategies that take comprehensive action, changing both the negative image and the problems causing it.     

基于旅游行为的旅游目的地空间层次与管理

关于旅游目的地的空间研究比较丰富,视点主要在于经济与地理空间。但是,旅游业是市场导向非常明显的行业,从旅游行为角度研究旅游目的地的空间层次更具有现实意义,对指导旅游目的地的开发和管理更具有操作性。本论文从旅游行为导向、管理方便性角度,融入社区理念,提出了新的旅游目的地解读,将其划分为三个空间层次,即游览服务区、社区服务区和社会服务区,并分析了它的空间层次结构关系和主要要素。论文最后从规范管理角度提出管理层次与关系。     

韩国潜在游客的中国旅游目的地意象认知与行为意图

旅游目的地意象是20世纪70年代以来,地理学和旅游学等学科交叉生成的研究命题,是旅游目的地市场细分、市场定位及竞争分析的重要工具。本文选择中国近缘文化群体客源市场,也是中国最大的入境客源市场韩国为研究对象,以非结构式和结构式研究相互结合的方式,研究分析了韩国潜在游客对中国的旅游目的地意象认知及行为意图,研究结果显示：（1）韩国潜在游客对中国的旅游目的地意象认知由四个基本维度构成,分别是平和、愉悦、动感与现代,其中,平和、愉悦和现代与旅游目的地意象呈正相关关系;（2）韩国潜在游客对中国的旅游目的地意象认知与其行为意图呈正相关关系;（3）中国旅游目的地意象的平和、愉悦特征对韩国潜在游客行为意图有明显的正向影响,呈正相关关系。     

国外旅游目的地研究综述 --基于Tourism Management近10年文章

为了对国外旅游目的地研究的成果和最新动态有一个清晰的了解,笔者检索了Tourism Management(《旅游管理》)近10年来的相关文献(不包括会议记录和书评)共32篇,对不同年份发表的论文数量及作者的国别作了统计,并分析了这些文献研究的主要内容,包括旅游目的地的概念、旅游目的地形象、旅游目的地的管理与发展、旅游目的地与居民的关系及旅游者与旅游目的地的关系等,最后展望旅游目的地研究的趋势。     

晚明时期我国历史旅游客流空间集聚与扩散研究

本文以《四库全书》、《四库全书存目丛书》、《四库全书存目丛书补编》、《四库禁毁书丛刊》及《四库未收书辑刊》中记载的晚明文人游记为基础,借助SPSS12.0软件,对晚明时期我国历史旅游客流的集聚和扩散现象进行研究,通过因子分析发现当时我国已初步形成四大旅游集聚场和三大旅游扩散场,并进一步利用因子得分进行聚类分析,以此为依据划分旅游目的地和客源地等级结构。     

景区形象与游客感知价值、满意和忠诚的关系的实证研究

游客忠诚是景区赢得竞争优势的重要保证。景区形象对旅游者出游前的目的地选择、游中的体验评价和游后行为倾向都有影响。本文在问卷调查的基础上,利用结构方程模型对景区形象与游客感知价值、满意和游客忠诚的关系展开实证研究。研究发现,景区形象对游客感知价值、满意和游客忠诚有着显著的正向影响,感知价值正向影响满意,但是对游客忠诚正向影响不显著,满意正向影响游客忠诚。利用因子分析揭示出景区形象存在功能形象、可达形象和情感形象三个维度。引入时间维度将景区游客忠诚重新界定为近期忠诚、中期忠诚、远期忠诚和态度忠诚四个维度。利用回归分析,发现景区形象各维度与游客忠诚各维度之间存在一定的因果关系。     

非旅游书目与旅游地形象的树立

本以非旅游书目中的《化苦旅》为例,分析了书中所涉及的旅游地信息,指出《化苦旅》树立了人山水类的旅游地形象,并提出了如何运用非旅游书目来树立旅游地形象的建议。     

游客感知"灰度区"的旅游形象策划初探--兼曲靖市旅游形象策划

本从游客对旅游形象感知的角度,提出了游客感知“灰度区”与游客感知“光环区”的概念,分析了“灰度区”旅游形象开发的必要性与可行性,并对“灰度区”旅游形象策划进行了一种模式探讨——旅游产品的形象整合模式。从潜在游客对“灰度区”的心理感知分析入手,针对旅游产品的形象整合模式的内涵,探讨了其操作过程及技巧。最后,以曲靖市为例,作了游客感知“灰度区”旅游形象策划实例分析。     

自我一致性对旅游目的地忠诚的作用机理研究——以韶山为例

自我一致性描述了产品象征价值表征对消费决策和行为的影响,是旅游目的地进行“非功用性定位”的重要理论基础.以自我一致性作为旅游目的地忠诚形成机理的逻辑起点,引入功能一致性作为中介变量,游客涉入和旅游经验作为调节变量,构建概念模型.使用问卷工具在韶山获得基础数据,利用结构方程模型技术分析得到结果：第一,自我一致性对功能一致性具有显著的正向影响;第二,自我一致性通过功能一致性对旅游目的地忠诚产生显著的正向影响;第三,自我一致性未能对旅游目的地忠诚产生直接效应;第四,旅游经验和游客涉入的调节效应未得到证实.实证结果提示营销管理者除关注旅游目的地的功能属性之外,还应高度重视象征性形象（如品牌个性）的塑造和传播.     

From appropriation to conservation: Mughal monuments,colonial tourism and the Dak Bungalow

ABSTRACT

The rise in colonial tourism in the post-uprising decades propelled the need for tourist infrastructure in the Indian Subcontinent. This need was met by appropriating historic monuments and reusing them as tourist rest houses, called Dak Bungalows – a common occurrence in Agra and Delhi, former Mughal capitals and popular tourist destinations. Even as the state established the Archaeological Survey of India to safeguard the Subcontinent’s monuments, the transformation carried out by colonial engineers undermined their historic worth in the absence of guidelines. Critical of the engineers’ undertaking, Viceroy Curzon, took up the challenge of ridding monuments, particularly Mughal monuments, of modern interventions. While being instrumental in providing monuments with statutory protection, Curzon appropriated these monuments to legitimize the colonial state’s authority. This paper examines the seventeenth century Mughal city, Fatehpur Sikri, a popular tourist destination in the nineteenth century, where three historic buildings were appropriated and transformed into Dak Bungalows prior to the building of a new Dak Buangalow at Curzon’s behest. Examining these developments against the backdrop of the colonial state’s post-uprising political dispensation, through the prism of monument conservation and colonial tourism, it argues that all forms of engagement with monuments operated within the colonial framework.     

Being a tourist as a chosen experience in a proximity destination

ABSTRACT

Being a tourist is not a passive attitude. It is the result of a conscious decision essentially based on how individuals build what they perceive as unknown and how they decide to get to know it. In other words, tourists deliberately create a distance with the destination which allows them to enjoy the tourist experience as something exceptional. This paper is part of ongoing research and focuses on the subjective construction of the otherness, since this process determines what is left to be discovered. First, a theoretical overview will introduce the concepts of usual environment, proximity and tourist. Then, we will focus on guided tours as a mechanism of mediation between individuals and places. Finally, we will move on to the case of Barcelona's walking tours and the local participants’ experience as a way to adopt a tourist's approach. Preliminary results show, first, four categories of experience of proximate guided tours: educational, expert, recreational and tourist. Then, they focus on the proximity tourist experience using Urry and Larsen's notion of the ‘tourist gaze’ and Tuan's theory on the tourist and the resident's points of view. According to these theories, participants’ motivations and their individual frame of reference define a tourist's point of view. Based on that, results show that proximity tourists and traditional tourists share curiosity as motivation but do not have the same points of reference. In spite of that, the feeling of proximity with the destination does not constitute a barrier to become a tourist. It is the conscious adoption of the tourist's role which makes the individual gaze upon the visited areas like a tourist, regardless of the proximity with the environment. This approach of proximity tourism constitutes a way to enhance familiar places and develop tourism in an environmentally concerned context where proximate destinations are being promoted.     

World Heritage and Tourism Innovation: Institutional Frameworks and Local Adaptation

Abstract

The interest in heritage as a tool for destination development has recently been substantial in Sweden, especially when it comes to receiving World Heritage (WH) status. The possibility of using the WH brand in developing tourism products and marketing destinations has great potential for many heritage destinations. The aim of this paper is to discuss innovation processes within heritage tourism. The focus is on the role of WH status as a factor influencing innovative practices at different Swedish WH sites. This study uses qualitative methods, such as interviews and analysis of written material from five selected Swedish WH sites, with in-depth analysis of the Great Copper Mountain in Falun. To what extent does WH status change the preconditions for tourism development at WH destinations? What is the role of institutional frameworks in this process? This paper will show how WH may facilitate tourism innovation mainly through developing new products and marketing strategies, but also by institutional innovations concerning new forms of collaboration and networks.     

旅游目的地区域国内旅游花费的差异性分析——以西安市五一黄金周为例

旅游花费由客源地花费、路途花费和旅游目的地花费三部分构成,游客的旅游目的地花费结构和花费水平客观地反映了目的地旅游产业部门结构的合理性及旅游业发展水平。以西安地区国内游客黄金周旅游花费为研究对象,选取旅游花费水平及花费结构指标,利用SPSS12.0中的聚类分析将国内游客划分为三类:高、中、低消费游客群,通过对不同消费水平的游客群的研究,得出如下结论:西安地区以中低消费游客群为主体,停留时间、旅游目的等旅游消费行为因素是影响国内游客旅游花费水平的主要因素。增加参与性、体验性旅游活动项目,加大旅游商品及娱乐产品的开发力度,是提高国内游客在西安花费水平的根本途径。     

城市旅游地生命周期的系统动态模型

对城市旅游和旅游地生命周期的概念进行了分析和界定,在评述国内外相关研究成果的基础上,提出了一般城市旅游地生命周期的研究框架,并论述了系统动力学方法对于旅游地生命周期研究的适用性和有效性,构建了一般城市旅游地旅游发展的系统动态模型,解释了旅游地发展的系统内部结构和各要素的作用机制。     

基于旅游者视角的目的地品牌权益测量模型：以皖南国际旅游区为例

本研究基于旅游者的视角构建旅游目的地品牌权益测量模型,并使用来自中国的经验数据对其进行检验和修正。研究发现：旅游目的地品牌权益包括4个维度：品牌知晓、品牌形象、品牌质量、品牌忠诚。其中,品牌知晓是品牌权益的基本来源,对品牌形象和品牌质量有显著直接影响;品牌形象是品牌权益的最重要维度,显著影响品牌质量和品牌忠诚;品牌质量显著影响品牌忠诚;品牌忠诚是品牌权益的核心概念,是品牌建设追求的重要目标。     

Communitas in fright tourism

Abstract

Liminality offers an explanation of the threshold one passes through as they enter a tourist destination. Beginning with the anticipation phase of the experience a tourist travels to a destination for an on-site experience. Multiple thresholds occur for the tourist, yet during the periods prior to the actual event, motivations will likely draw or repel the individual. For dark tourism research none have reviewed these liminal experiences in fright tourism, the more entertaining and lighter aspect of the dark elder. To better understand the anticipation stage of the liminal experience, the influence of fear while entering a haunted attraction is explored. Fear is expected to contribute to the fun of these haunted attractions. During this liminal phase, communitas evolve where the social bonding of the visitors develops during the encounter. Characteristics of these groups are examined in this exploratory study.     

Destination image repair while combatting crises: tourism marketing in Africa

ABSTRACT

The current study analyzes the media strategies used by Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries to repair their destination image during and after crisis, and attract international tourism. There has been to date a dearth of academic studies that looked at the marketing and branding of destinations in SSA. The few studies that have appeared on this topic focused primarily on a single case study, rather than examining various models and theories that belong to the field of image repair. We, therefore, sought to analyze a variety of case studies to look for common strategies among SSA nations. The conceptual framework used in this research was the ‘multi-step model for altering place image.’ The study was based on qualitative content analyses of news reports, press interviews, campaigns and other marketing initiatives. These items were located in three sources between the years 2008 and 2015: official websites and social media pages of the national tourism boards of SSA countries, news, reports about African countries published in three main international media outlets and reports in a global tourism news website.The study's conclusions show that SSA marketers and policy-makers used three groups of strategies to promote their destinations during and after tourism crises: (1) source-focused strategies (media cooperation and media relations, physical/economic threats and media blockage, and internet use as an alternative source), (2) message-focused strategies (ignoring the crisis, negative image acknowledgement, scale of crisis reduction, counter-message delivery, association with well-known brands and celebrities, tackling the crisis and the spin of liabilities into assets), and (3) audience-focused strategies (patriotism and personal/national heritage, and target audience change). We discovered that despite the differences among the countries, marketers in this area have adopted similar strategies to combat crises in order to repair destination images.