THE HISTORY OF THE LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY INSTRUMENTAL NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS PROGRAMME FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS

The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory pottery provenance group developed standards and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) methods that are used at many archaeometry laboratories around the world. The background and development of ‘Standard Pottery’ and of methods for INAA are described. Early pottery provenance studies are described, and other research programmes, involving obsidian and magmatic mixing, the origin of the stone used for the Colossi of Memnon, and the ‘Plate of Brass’, are mentioned. Research work by the Laboratory included the discovery of the world‐wide iridium anomaly and extensive subsequent research on what has come to be known as the ‘Asteroid Impact Theory’. Characteristics of the analytical programme for pottery provenance work, including overall aims, precision and accuracy, intercalibration, and irradiation and measurement protocols, are discussed. New research areas developed in the past 15 years, to broaden the usefulness of chemical compositional data for archaeological investigation, and examples of recent work, are described. This research, which makes use of high‐precision X‐ray fluorescence analysis in addition to INAA measurements on sample splits, includes distinguishing the products of different workshops located at the same production site, studies on the significance of the distribution of silver in archaeological pottery and the use of high‐precision chemical compositional data as an aid for making chronological distinctions.     

The Application of Scanning X‐ray Fluorescence Microanalysis in the Examination of Cultural Materials

The use of a new analytical technique for the elemental characterization of artefacts is described. The new equipment is capable of X‐ray fluorescence analysis in conventional mode as well as for elemental scanning of small objects, fragments or microsamples. The Omicron, manufactured by Kevex Instruments Inc., is equipped with a microfocused X‐ray tube, which can be collimated to a 50 μ beam and used to scan objects over a maximum range of 256 × 256 pixels. False‐colour elemental distribution maps allow the user to image small features, differently pigmented areas, or whole objects in the machine completely non‐destructively. Analyses can be carried out in air, under helium or in vacuum. Two examples of the application of the new technique are described: first, to the surface decoration on a Greek Attic white ground lekythos; and, second, to the pigments used on a small painting, a ‘Pittura’, on copper by the Dutch artist, Frans van Mieris (1635–81) in the collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum.     

Short Note: Provenancing of Pottery— The Need for an Integrated Approach?

The method of chemical provenance determination of pottery is described as a very useful tool, which gives reliable results in most cases, if it is applied correctly and to its full power. Therefore, it is claimed that additional petrographic analysis, the so‐called ‘integrated approach’, should not be considered as a must for each project, but is only needed in cases in which the chemical approach leaves questions to be answered.     

NON‐DESTRUCTIVE INVESTIGATION OF BRONZE ARTEFACTS FROM THE MARCHES NATIONAL MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY USING NEUTRON DIFFRACTION*

Non‐destructive neutron diffraction techniques were applied to determine composition and microstructure data, and hence to derive information on manufacturing techniques of Picenum bronze artefacts. Furthermore, texture analyses were carried out on standards and suitable ancient artefacts to investigate their potential role in archaeometallurgical studies. This is a first step towards an overall characterization of the bronze collection of the Marches National Museum of Archaeology, Italy, and the analytical demonstration of relations with and differences compared to Etruscan metallurgy. The work is also an example application of the powerful non‐destructive archaeometrical approaches provided by time‐of‐flight neutron diffraction.     

LOG‐RATIO COMPOSITIONAL DATA ANALYSIS IN ARCHAEOMETRY*

Compositional data arise commonly in archaeometry, in the study of artefact compositions where the variables measured either sum to 100%, or can be viewed as a subset of such a set of variables. There has been debate in Archaeometry about the appropriate way to analyse such data statistically, which amounts to argument about how the data should be transformed prior to statistical analysis. This paper reviews aspects of the debate and illustrates, using both simulated and real data, that what has been proposed as the ‘correct’ theoretical approach—log‐ratio analysis—does not always work well. The reasons for this are discussed.     

STATISTICAL ASPECTS OF POTTERY QUANTIFICATION FOR THE DATING OF SOME ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS*

This paper describes some statistical analyses of a particular archaeological material (pottery) originating at some sites in the city of Tours. An important part of the archaeological study of pottery is the comparison of ceramic assemblages to establish the absolute dates of contexts. In this paper, a statistical model is built to assess this comparison. The statistical procedure uses classical tools (correspondence analysis, linear regression and resampling methods) in an iterative scheme. Archaeologists may find in the paper a useful set of known statistical methods, while statisticians can learn a method of ‘arranging’ well‐known techniques. No method is new, but their combination is characteristic of this application.     

A PROVENANCE STUDY OF TANG SANCAI FROM CHINESE TOMBS AND RELICS BY INAA*

In order to group specimens of Tang Sancai of unknown provenance to the different kilns according to their chemical compositions, we studied the elemental abundance patterns of Tang Sancai body samples from different tombs, relics and kilns by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Our results indicated that the development process of Tang Sancai in the Prospering Tang period could be divided into at least two phases, with ad 705 or so as the boundary between them. The results of factor analysis showed that the red‐bodied samples were more likely to be produced near Xi’an, whereas the white‐bodied Tang Sancai wares dating to before ad 705 were most probably produced at Huanye Kiln (also known as ‘Gongxian’ Kiln), and the figures were very likely made at an undiscovered kiln near Luoyang or an undiscovered part of Huangye Kiln. Among the white‐bodied samples dated from ad 705 to ad 755, both types of figures and wares were mainly produced near Xi’an and Luoyang.     

INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA-MASS SPECTROMETRY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF ANCIENT METALS*

Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is a relatively new analytical technique, growing in popularity, that offers many advantages over previously available instrumentation for the measurement of both the elemental and isotopic composition of metallic antiquities. The application of this method of analysis to archaeological metalwork is discussed and the technique compared with other methods of analysis commonly used in archaeometallurgy. Particular attention is drawn to the potential pitfalls and difficulties associated with ICP-MS and the need for extremely careful sample preparation and instrument operation.     

REPRODUCIBILITY OF ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF BASALTIC STONE ARTEFACTS BY QUADRUPLE ICP–MS USING DIFFERENT SAMPLE SIZES AND DIGESTION METHODS,WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Using high‐precision inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP–MS), we measured >40 elements in basalts sampled by diamond micro‐drills to evaluate the effectiveness of different digestion methods and the reproducibility of elemental analysis for different sample sizes from 5 mg to 100 mg. The results indicate that those elements that are most suitable for geochemical characterization, such as rare earth elements (REE), high‐field strength elements (HFSE) and certain mobile elements (Rb, Sr, Th, U), show excellent reproducibility with an average relative standard deviation (RSD) of 3% between open‐beaker and pressured ‘bomb’ digestion methods. This observation rules out the presence of refractory phases such as zircon, which can only dissolve in pressured ‘bombs’, and suggests that the results from open‐beaker digestion are reliable. The ICP–MS data for powders of different weights ranging from 10 to 100 mg collected from two fine‐grained basalt artefacts display excellent reproducibility, with a RSD of <5% for the most important elements. The reproducibility is reduced when including the 5 mg weight fraction (RSD of ～2–9%), which is still sufficient for archaeological applications. Our results demonstrate the usefulness of 10 mg samples for elemental measurement, which is valuable for geochemical characterization and sourcing of fine‐grained basalt artefacts from museum collections that require minimal destructive sampling.     

ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS OF ANCIENT COPPER ALLOYS: EMPIRICAL VALUES FOR PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analyses are compared with neutron activation as well as atomic absorption analyses of ancient copper-based alloys in order to examine their accuracy and to estimate realistic values for precision and sensitivity of EDXRF. The results show that it is possible to obtain reliable data of the surface composition of objects non-destructively. Better results for bulk composition are usually obtained with drill samples where the sensitivity of the method is at least competitive with atomic absorption spectroscopy with flame atomization.     

ARCHAEOMETRIC ANALYSES ON ‘CORINTHIAN B’ TRANSPORT AMPHORAE FOUND AT GELA (SICILY,ITALY)*

The aim of this work is to throw light on the archaic production of ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae, which are widely diffused in the Western Mediterranean basin and are also present in Greece, but whose geographical provenance is still under discussion. We analysed a group of 37 samples belonging to different ceramic classes dated to the sixth and fifth centuries bc . In particular, there were 19 sherds of trade amphorae of the so‐called archaic ‘Corinthian B’ type, from archaeological excavations in Gela (Sicily, Italy). As a comparison, we also investigated 18 samples of tiles and local coarse pottery from Sibari (Calabria, Italy). The samples were analysed using different techniques, such as optical analysis with a polarized‐light microscope (OM), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform–infrared absorption (FT–IR) and inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES). The combination of these complementary analytical methods allowed us to characterize the samples, determine their firing temperatures and identify the probable provenance. The study of thin sections of sherds by OM allowed us to divide the investigated amphorae into two main groups: the first was characterized by a composition that suggested a Western provenance, in particular from the Calabrian–Peloritan region; the second one was very similar to the ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae that come from Corinth and have been classified as ‘fabric class 1’ by Whitbread (1995 ). The XRD and FT–IR results permitted us to determine the mineral composition of the findings and to estimate their firing temperature. The ICP–OES technique was particularly useful in identifying the production centres. In fact, in the studied pottery, this analysis revealed Ni and Cr values that were noticeably different between Greek and southern Italian production.     

SOUTHEAST ASIA'S FIRST ISOTOPICALLY DEFINED PREHISTORIC COPPER PRODUCTION SYSTEM: WHEN DID EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY BEGIN IN THE KHAO WONG PRACHAN VALLEY OF CENTRAL THAILAND?

Southeast Asian metallurgical developments have been a focus of international academic interest since Solheim (1968 ) and Bayard (1972 ) first published bronze artefacts in claimed early/middle third millennium bce contexts from northeastern Thailand, igniting a regional ‘origins’ of metallurgy debate that has smouldered for 40 years (e.g., White and Hamilton 2009 , Higham in press ). In this paper, we present the results of a lead isotope pilot study centred on the Khao Wong Prachan Valley of central Thailand—currently Southeast Asia's only documented prehistoric copper smelting locale. These preliminary data indicate that our ongoing regional metal exchange research programme may be able to elucidate interaction networks between copper‐producing and ‐consuming societies within and beyond Southeast Asia from c. 2000 bce to c. 500 ce . Furthermore, we are able to offer tentative evidence relevant to White and Hamilton's (2009 ) ‘Rapid Eurasian Technological Expansion Model’ for the Sino‐Siberian derivation of regional metal technologies around the turn of the third/second millennium bce .     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION PATTERNING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AT THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ‘DEMOKRITOS’: THE CASE OF BLACK‐ON‐RED NEOLITHIC POTTERY FROM MACEDONIA,GREECE

A short history of the application of NAA in the characterization of archaeological materials at the National Center for Scientific Research ‘Demokritos’, Athens, is presented. NAA was first applied in archaeology in 1974 at the Radioanalytical Laboratory, and since 1989 has been one of the primary analytical techniques of the ‘Demokritos’ archaeometry programme. A case study is also presented, concerning chemical patterning of the black‐on‐red Neolithic pottery class from Macedonia. Four chemical groups were identified, each corresponding to a different area of production. It is shown that this standardized concept of pottery technology and style was spread out within at least eastern Macedonia.     

THE TECHNOLOGY OF ‘GLAZED’ RESERVED SLIP WARE—A FINE CERAMIC OF THE HARAPPAN PERIOD*

‘Glazed’ Reserved Slip Ware (RSW) is a high‐quality glossy bichrome pottery of the Indus Valley civilization, and dates to the mature Harappan period (c. 2600–1900 bc ). Scanning electron microscopy with energy‐dispersive X‐ray analysis indicates that the surface coat on RSW is composed of a pale grey vitrified clay slip, which overlies a black slip with significantly higher iron oxide. Hence the term ‘sintered’ Reserved Slip Ware is to be preferred. X‐ray diffraction analysis indicates that both the pale and black slips contain hercynite, mullite and quartz, but observation by scanning electron microscopy shows that the black slips contain higher amounts of coarser‐grained hercynite. The elemental data suggest that different clays were used to make the bodies and the slips. However, key element ratios are very close in associated black and pale slips. The grey slip may have been produced by elutriation of the fine, iron oxide‐rich clay that was used to prepare the black slip. The pale grey slip was laid over the black and removed by combing to produce a bichrome effect, which evoked semi‐precious materials such as agate. RSW was a specialist product that required significantly higher input skill and resources than the majority of Harappan clay‐based ceramics. It is a further example of the range of sophisticated Harappan ceramic wares, which included faience, fired steatite and stoneware.     

UNOFFICIAL COINAGE IN THE THIRD CENTURY ad IN THE GALLO‐ROMAN WORLD: CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ANALYSES FOR DETERMINING THE LOCALIZATION OF THE WORKSHOP*

The third century ad was a complex period of crisis in the Roman world. In this paper, official and unofficial antoniniani, and double sestercii and sestercii, were analysed by fast neutron activation analysis (FNAA) to determine the alloys used by the craftsmen for producing forgeries. Moreover, at Châteaubleau, archaeologists discovered antoniniani and bronze forgeries from Postumus. Similar materials have been found in other hoards. They are believed to have been produced by a workshop called ‘atelier II’ by numismatists. The question was whether it is possible to differentiate the Châteaubleau production from the atelier II production.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF COLONIAL CERAMICS FROM SOUTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR*

Sixty‐one ceramic samples collected in Cuenca, Ecuador, were analysed by neutron activation analysis in an attempt to establish their elemental compositions. The bulk of the samples were manufactured in the region of Cuenca, with others imported from Quito in the northern highlands of Ecuador, from Panama Vieja in Panama, and from Seville in Spain. Relative to the Cuenca ceramics, the Spanish samples were separable primarily by their high Ca contents; the Panamanian ceramics by their high Cs contents; and the Quito ceramics by their high Na contents. The ceramics made within the region surrounding Cuenca are much more difficult to separate, with Ba and other elements being potentially important.     

European developments in strategic spatial planning

Strategic spatial planning which takes an integrated approach to the development of a territory seemed to go out of fashion, but now there are signs that it is being re‐established. This paper explores these developments using case studies from 10 European countries. The analysis uses an ‘institutionalist’ approach, which examines how the ‘agency’ of spatial planning practices responds to the ‘structure’ of contextual forces, at the same time influencing that structure. The ‘driving forces’ which are influencing strategic spatial planning are investigated, as are two aspects of the changes in spatial planning: institutional relations and policy agendas. The conclusions are that—at least in the case studies—there is a movement in the institutional relations towards horizontal articulation, territorial logic, and negotiative forms. Policy agendas too are changing, becoming more selective and using new conceptions of space and place. Those institutional developments, however, are not necessarily being translated into territorially‐integrated policy (as distinct from functional/sectoral policy). That translation appears to require simultaneous re‐framing of relational resources (trust, social capital), knowledge resources (intellectual capital), linked to strong mobilization efforts (political capital). The cases considered varied significantly in how far that had been done. Where it had, strategic spatial plan‐making practices were playing a key role in developing institutional territorial integration and re‐invigorating territorial identities.     

CORRESPONDENCE AND DISCRIMINANT ANALYSES OF SAND AND SAND TEMPER COMPOSITIONS,TONTO BASIN,ARIZONA*

Geologists use petrographic modal analysis to relate fluvial sand composition to source rock composition, thus establishing provenance. Archaeologists seeking to establish provenance of sand temper in pottery can use similar petrographic methods, but their finer scale of investigation requires more precise statistical tools than those employed by geologists. A quantitative method for performing that task is presented. It utilizes correspondence analysis and discriminant analysis of logratio transformed point‐count data to define petrofacies, or sand temper resource procurement zones. The procedure is illustrated with sand and sand‐tempered sherd samples collected from the Tonto Basin, central Arizona; temporal trends in utilitarian ceramic production c. AD 100–1350 are reviewed.     

CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND STATISTICAL MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF ANCIENT POTTERY FROM MESSINA,CATANIA, LENTINI AND SIRACUSA (SICILY)*

This paper presents the chemical characterization of 79 fragments of Archaic and Hellenistic fine‐grained pottery from archaeological sites in Messina, Catania, Lentini and Siracusa (Sicily). The sherds were classified as ‘calcidian’, ‘banded’, ‘unvarnished’ and ‘black varnished’ pottery. The major and trace elements identified by X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) were statistically elaborated using the method proposed by J. Aitchinson in 1986 for the analysis of compositional data. From cluster analyses using element/SiO₂ log‐ratios, it was possible to group the pottery found in Catania, Lentini and Siracusa into highly linked clusters. Conversely, the Messina pottery was divided into two clearly distinct groups. With the aim of identifying any possible mineralogical differences between the two Messina groups, Fourier transform infrared (FT–IR) absorption measurements were made, showing only quantitative differences in plagioclase and muscovite. The specific groups of pottery with restricted chemical compositions are considered to be of local production, also on the basis of archaeological and petrographic evidence.     

The ‘Dividual Androgyne’ and Me: a Personal Affair

In the 25 years since Marilyn Strathern published The Gender of the Gift (1988) its signature concepts of the ‘dividual androgyne’ and ‘sociality’ have received almost no criticism in the anthropological literature and are now widely accepted as true. The ‘dividual’ is considered to be ‘a new, non‐unitary model of embodiment and … one of the most important theoretical accomplishments to emerge from Melanesian ethnography in the latter part of the 20^th Century’ despite the fact that it erases affect, agency, identity and other essential features of human beings (Lipset 2008). The present critique of Strathern's concept of the androgynous ‘dividual’ challenges its legitimacy as a Melanesian or any other ‘premodern’ form of personhood and suggests that it expresses the wish of academic feminists in the 1970s and 1980s to locate an indigenous model for androgyny and to characterise patriarchy, misogyny and sexual segregation as peculiarly Western. The article explores aspects of Gimi myth, ritual and exchange which Strathern claims helped her to formulate the concept of the ‘dividual’ (especially those surrounding men's sacred bamboo flutes) and concludes that she mistook a virulently anti‐female ideology – including a fantasy in which men may subsume or incorporate certain aspects of female anatomy – for benign accommodation between the sexes. The ‘dividual’ does not correspond to social reality among the Gimi and paradoxically affirms Lévi‐Strauss' classic demonstration in the Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949) that ‘the gender of the gift’ is invariably female.