琐谈鹰洋银元及其基本元素

正19世纪的20-90年代末期,由墨西哥14个造币厂连续大量铸造的8里亚尔主币的花边齿鹰洋银元(以下简称"鹰洋")成为全世界范围内商贸交易的重要流通之物。明朝中后期,随着东方新航线的开辟,东西方海上交通日趋繁荣。鹰洋这种"银元"采用机器铸造,重量、成色统一,使用时不必像银两那样验色、称重,适应了当时商品经济发展的需要,对中国     

探索鹰洋帽面之光柱

正十九世纪中叶,墨西哥鹰洋银币曾经是世界流通市场上的首选交易媒介。主币8里亚尔(相当壹圆)完美的重量和纯度保证,使其获得了世界贸易中公认的声誉。墨西哥于1821年脱离西班牙的殖民统治,宣布独立。1824年10月4日成立合众国政府,在此年的宪法中把墨西哥划成十九个州和四个地区,并规定各州自选州长和地方议会。独立后墨西哥政府十四个造币厂先后鼓铸鹰洋银元,仍然沿袭原西班牙殖民者的铸币风格。     

墨西哥银元在中国的流通

墨西哥银元 ,俗称鹰洋。是世界金融史上颇具传奇色彩的货币。十九世纪中叶开始 ,这种外国货币逐渐成为我国华东、华南地区使用最广、最受欢迎、最有势力、流通量最大的银币 ,风行数十年不衰。对我国货币制度影响深远。虽然鹰洋在中国货币史上有重要地位 ,有关的专门研究还是空白。本文全面研究墨西哥银元在中国流通问题 ,其中不足之处 ,希方家指正。一鹰洋是著名的西班牙“PESO” (比索 )的继承者。十六世纪四十年代 ,西班牙殖民者先后在秘鲁 (今玻利维亚 )的波托西和墨西哥的萨卡特拉斯等地发现大银矿 ,此后三、四百年 ,巨额美洲白银源源…     

近代上海钱业习惯法初探

近代上海钱庄业具有很高的行业信用,是与其习惯法密不可分的。钱业习惯法主要体现为各种行业规则,加入钱业公会的会员必须遵守这些规则。这些行业规则通过各种途径向外界扩散,成为公认的规范市场秩序的有机环节。在弱政府的环境下,上海钱业公会是以习惯法进行自我治理的同业组织,体现出一些西方学者所谓“第三方实施机制”的制度特征,可视为新制度经济学的一个典型案例。     

光绪年间的钱贵银贱与江南制造局铸钱

清光绪年间,钱贵银贱,银两、银元兑钱数继续减少,成为当时的主要货币问题之一。以上海为例,光绪三年十月初九日（1877年11月13日）鹰洋每元可易制钱1019;而初六、初七日鹰洋一元的换钱数还不到千。光绪二十年中日甲午战争以后．钱价更为高涨。光绪二十一年,鹰洋一元的换钱数,“渐减至九百数十,甚有减至八百数十。无论贫富,咸受亏耗,实为数十年来所仅见。”用洋钱买物,如不到一元,须要找钱,至少要买到五六百,卖才肯找。     

港币小史

鸦片战争后,英国殖民主义于1842年侵占了香港。当时香港是一个渔港,华人以打渔为生。当地所用货币,大数用银(主要用西班牙本洋、墨西哥鹰洋、荷兰马剑、美国贸易银、日本龙洋),小数用铜钱(主要是清钱)。这几种不同国度的货币共同流通,由于成色、重量不     

清末关于本位制度的讨论

货币本位制度产生于西方。典型的金属本位制度要求货币有主辅币之分。主币即本位币,按自身的实际价值流通,支付时不受数量的限制,是无限法偿币。辅币是不足值的,以主币的价值为价值,支付时有数量的限制,是有限法偿币。主币实行自由铸造政策,任何人都可向造币厂申请代铸,造币厂不收或只收很低的铸造费,这是为了保持货币价值和币材价值的一致性。辅币因为是不足值的,故只能由国家垄断铸造。中国货币流通的历史虽久,但历来只有货币制度而无货币本位制度。近代中国在西方货币制度的影响下,才有建立货币本位制度的考虑。开始时对本位制度还很不了解,只是主张自铸银元。后来因镑亏严重,许多人主张自铸金币。再后来才进入了本位制度的讨论,普遍主张以建立金本位制为终极目标;在条件未具备时,可先实行银本位制或金汇兑(虚金)本位制。此外,还有些人提出了一些比较特殊的币制主张。     

晚清自铸银币探微

我国古代融资、流通主要使用银两（也叫银元宝）,以“两”为单位。当时,白银在流通中充当了主币的角色。清朝前期,将白银作为称量货币使用,其形制复杂。随着门户开放,外贸量增大,西方银币大量入侵,终于引起我国流通领域融资货币的变革。[第一段]     

秦润卿与上海钱庄业

秦润卿是中国近代著名的金融实业家,从事近代钱庄业凡五十余年.不仅使上海钱业随时代的潮流而走过一段辉煌,实现自身的历史价值,也使自己成为一个努力跨越旧式商人的藩篱,向新目标行进的范例.     

光绪年间的钱贵银贱与江南制造局铸钱

一清光绪年间,钱贵银贱,银两、银元兑钱数继续减少,成为当时的主要货币问题之一。以上海为例,光绪三年十月初九日(1877年11月13日)鹰洋每元可易制钱1019文;而初六、初七日鹰洋一元的换钱数还不到千文。①光绪二十年中日甲午战争以后,钱价更为高涨。光绪二十一年,鹰洋一元的换钱数,“渐减至九百数十文,甚有减至八百数十文者。无论贫富,咸受亏耗,实为数十年来所仅见。”②用洋钱买物,如不到一元,须要找钱,至少要买到五六百文,卖者才肯找。民间以洋钱换钱,先要用大洋换小洋(银角),再用小洋换钱。“以大洋换小洋,已吃亏数文十余文不等,再以小洋…     

Imperial Improvement

Cyrus Veeser . A World Safe for Capitalism: Dollar Diplomacy and America's Rise to Global Power . New York : Columbia University Press , 2002 . 190 pp. Photos. $ .     

“宝苏”机制制钱铸地探寻

机制制钱是清代晚期出现的用机器铸造的新式制钱,是传统的翻砂铸钱向先进的机器铸钱过渡的产物.机制制钱中有一种"宝苏"机制制钱(封三图1),其多数版式比较常见.但是,这种钱的铸造地一直以来没有定论.     

Monuments and nationalism in modern Mexico

A key feature in the cultural repertoire of Mexican nationalism has been the excavation and reconstruction of the archaeological sites and monuments of the pre‐Hispanic past. They afford tangible witness to the foundations of Mexican history and the putative existence of the Mexican people in the civilisations of Mesoamerica. Although in the colonial period creole patriots identified the Aztec empire as their classical past, it was not until the Mexican Revolution that archaeological sites and monuments were integrated into the nationalism that accompanied and characterised that movement. The chief author of this cultural turn was Manuel Gamio, a professional archaeologist and liberal nationalist, whose extensive writings thus demand attention. But although he emphasised the grandeur of the pre‐Hispanic civilisation, he advocated the complete incorporation of the contemporary Indian peasantry into the Mexican nation.     

Romita pottery revisited: a reassessment of the provenance of ceramics from Colonial Mexico by LA-MC-ICP-MS

The origin of Romita pottery has been a controversial topic during the last three decades of Colonial Mexico archaeological studies. Lead isotopic analyses of glaze coatings of Spanish and Mexican pottery, and Romita ceramics unearthed from the archaeological site of the Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City provide evidence that support a Mexican origin.     

墨西哥人移民美国的历程

墨西哥移民在美国移民史上占有重要的地位,是当今美国最大的移民群体。作为一种历史现象,墨西哥人向美国较大规模的移民开始于20世纪初前后,概而观之,除20世纪30年代因大萧条而短暂中断外,墨西哥移民一直呈现出持续的高水平特征。墨西哥人移民美国的历程大致可以划分为四个阶段,与之对应的是四次移民浪潮：第一次浪潮从19世纪末20世纪初到1929年美国经济大萧条;第二次移民浪潮从1942年美墨双方签署《布拉塞洛计划55301964年该计划终结;第三次浪潮从1965年移民法颁布到20世纪80年代中期,此间大量墨西哥无证件移民流入美国;第四次浪潮从《1986年移民改革与控制法》颁布至今。墨西哥人移民美国源于一系列历史、地理、经济和社会因素,根植于美墨两国总体社会经济背景之下。     

Selling Maize in Mexico: The Persistence of Peasant Farming in an Era of Global Markets

The last decade of the twentieth century was heralded as the ‘end of agrarian reform’ in Mexico and the initiation of a new era of market‐led agricultural policy and practice. The impact of neoliberalism and the North American Free Trade Agreement on smallholder maize production has been widely conceived as negative, associated with ecological degradation, rural emigration and cultural erosion. Yet, some twenty years later, all evidence suggests that smallholder maize production is continuing in Mexico, albeit in evolving structures and forms. This article uses a farm‐level survey implemented in three Mexican states to assess the current condition of maize farming in Mexico. The authors revisit past categorizations of Mexican farmers and apply similar approaches to explore what maize‐producing households are doing with their maize, and what current patterns of production imply for future Mexican maize policy. They find evidence of greater persistence and adaptability in Mexican maize farming than is often presented. On the basis of their analysis, they advocate for a reconsideration of the underlying assumptions of public policy, highlighting the heterogeneity of the maize landscape and the unrealized and generally unrecognized potential this heterogeneity represents.     

A Geometric Morphometric Study of Regional Craniofacial Variation in Mexico

Spanish speaking populations in the USA have long been categorised under the umbrella term ‘Hispanic’, which is a cultural construct. The term Hispanic ignores the unique ethnohistories and biological variation among Hispanic groups with various European, African and indigenous American influences. Considerable heterogeneity has been identified in pre‐contact America and has continued to influence the cultural and biological compositions of various regions today. The purpose of this research is to examine biological variation in Mexico, which was influenced by indigenous migration patterns and the Old World conquests of the Americans. Using multivariate statistics, this paper compares 16 three‐dimensional craniometric landmarks of samples from northern Central Mexico, northern Yucatan and western Mexico to examine the regional biological variation present in Mexico in both prehistoric and historic groups and also compares Mexican, Spanish and African American groups to examine patterns of Old World conquests. Multivariate statistics detected significant group differences for both size and shape (centroid size, p < 0.0001; shape, p < 0.0001) and showed that while significantly different, all the Mexican groups are more similar to one another except for one prehistoric inland‐western Mexican group, which is morphologically distinct from the other Mexican groups. Previous mtDNA research in these areas shows a low prevalence of African American admixture and a high indigenous component in the northern Mexican groups, which is consistent with the findings of this paper. The prehistoric and historic Mexican groups were the most similar indicating the retention of indigenous admixture after contact. The results from this analysis demonstrate that all groups are significantly different from one another supporting other findings that have shown that the indigenous populations of the New World are heterogeneous and that this variation may also contribute to the heterogeneity of contemporary populations. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Breaking the Silence: Mexican Children and Women's Confrontation of Bracero Family Separation, 1942–64

On 6 August 1942, the Mexican and US governments’ recruitment of Mexican men into the temporary contract labour programme known as the Bracero Program initiated a process that would deteriorate Mexican children and women's personal wellbeing and relationships to each other. The Bracero Program left children to endure the absence of their bracero fathers, while married women and caretakers transitioned into single motherhood under conditions and terms that drove an uncalculated number of these women into undocumented migration to the United States. Separation from their mothers further devastated children. The silence concerning the programme and the whereabouts and intentions of their immigrant parents alienated children from the mothers and caretakers left to care for them. Hence, mothers, caretakers and teachers came together to listen and talk to their children and each other about the dangerous realities of the programme in order to overcome the alienating silence driving them apart within the borders of Mexico. Using archival sources and the oral life‐histories of fifty Mexican children and women who endured the programme's separation of their families in San Martin de Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, I argue that the anxiety and loss of Mexican children and women inspired mothers, caretakers and teachers to transition into instilling a gendered and transnational understanding of the dangers of the programme to their children and among themselves to prevent the onset of permanent alienation from each other.     

Mexican Restaurants in Tucson

Americans are increasingly electing to eat in Mexican restaurants, especially in the Southwest where Hispanic traditions are strong. This study draws upon survey and directory information in an attempt to analyze the changes in number, distribution and landscape attributes of Mexican restaurants in Tucson, Arizona. It concludes that as Mexican cuisine attracted a greater clientele, the landscape of these restaurants changed to enhance the ethnic character of the establishments.     

Averting a global financial crisis: the US,the IMF,and the Mexican debt crisis of 1976

This article explains the politics and diplomacy of the initial use of an International Monetary Fund (IMF) adjustment program as a tactic in a strategy to avert a possible global banking crisis. Scholars typically date the strategy to the Reagan administration's response to the sovereign debt crises in Eastern Europe and Latin America in the early 1980s. This article demonstrates that the approach originated instead during the 1976 Mexican debt crisis – the first potential postwar default by a developing country that threatened international bank failures. Key US and Mexican officials recognized that an IMF program of currency devaluation and austerity would probably fail in its stated objective of reducing Mexico's balance of payments deficit. Nevertheless, US Treasury and Federal Reserve officials, fearing that a Mexican default might lead to bank failures and subsequent global financial crisis, intervened to an unprecedented degree in the negotiations between the IMF and Mexico. The United States offered direct financial support and worked through diplomatic channels to insist that Mexico accept an IMF adjustment program, as a way of bailing out US banks. Mexican president Luis Echeverría's administration consented to IMF adjustment because officials perceived it as the least politically costly option among a range of alternatives.