Incremental banding in dental cementum: Methods of preparation for teeth from archaeological sites and for modern comparative specimens

Analysis of incremental banding in dental cementum is a well-established means of determining the age and season of death of wild mammals. The dental cementum of domesticated mammals likewise can indicate age and season of death. Methods of preparation applicable to archaeological teeth differ from those used for modern specimens, however, and this paper describes two methods that have given excellent imaging on teeth of Bos taurus; one for modern teeth and the other for teeth from archaeological sites.     

Observations on Seasonality and Mortality from a Recent Catastrophic Death Assemblage

On 3 November 1991, a group of 150 pronghorn went over a cliff near Green River, Wyoming. This mortality site provides a unique opportunity to examine a number of characteristics of catastrophic death assemblages that may aid in the interpretation of archaeological bonebed sites. In 1993, the mandibles were collected for a study of seasonality and age estimation. Examination of seasonality revealed some variation in estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increments. Six percent of 86 fawn specimens exhibit eruption and wear more advanced than expected for a November third event, and 21% of 28 cementum increment estimates differ from the known November third mortality date by a month or more. These data suggest some degree of error is inherent in seasonality estimates that must be considered when interpreting seasonal distributions. Age estimates by eruption and wear reveal a distribution of pronghorn ages with many more juvenile animals than expected for a known “catastrophic” event. This may be explained by the pattern of seasonal hunting in a modern managed herd, which is likely to be very different than aboriginal hunting patterns. Age estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increment techniques failed to agree within six months in 48% of 29 test cases, with a tendency for cementum ages to be younger in 71% of specimens in which estimates of age differed. In general, the mandible assemblage exhibited more variability than one might expect for a single catastrophic kill event.     

Estimating age and season of death of pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana Ord) by means of tooth eruption and wear

Age and season of death information for prey animals at archaeological sites can address issues such as season of site occupation and prey hunting or harvesting strategies. Unfortunately, adequate reference information for estimating age and season is lacking for many wild species, including pronghorn antelope. To address this problem, new methods of scoring tooth eruption and wear have been developed and have been applied to a sample of over 500 pronghorn mandibles to obtain improved eruption and wear schedules. One implication of this study is that ‘age class discreteness’ is an unreliable method for demonstrating mass mortality of prey. This study provides a much larger comparative sample than previously available, although larger known‐age mandible samples are still needed for pronghorn and many other wild species. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Problems and pitfalls in the diagnosis of linear enamel hypoplasia in cheek teeth of cattle

Prevalence and intensity of enamel hypoplasia have been used as markers of generalized physiological stress during dental development in a wide range of mammalian taxa. We studied cattle (Bos taurus) cheek teeth exhibiting morphological characteristics that are of relevance to the diagnosis of enamel hypoplasia in this and other bovid species. These characteristics were multiple, more or less horizontally arranged (waveform) lines or grooves in the cementum of the tooth crown and the adjacent root area, leading to an imbricated appearance of the cementum. On macroscopic examination of tooth surfaces, these lines resembled linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH). Microscopic analysis of tooth sections, however, revealed that the lines occurred in the cementum only, and that the underlying enamel did not exhibit morphological irregularities. In cheek teeth of older cattle, a thick cementum layer is regularly found in the cervical crown portion and the adjacent root area. Apposition of this cementum is related to the uplifting of the teeth from their alveoli, a process that compensates for the shortening of the tooth crowns due to occlusal wear. In the studied specimens, a pronounced periodic nature of tooth uplifting and the related deposition of cementum is the likely cause for the observed imbricated appearance of the cementum. While this phenomenon may be misinterpreted as representing a case of LEH, presence of enamel hypoplasia in bovid teeth may be overlooked when the defects become filled with coronal cementum and are therefore not apparent on external inspection. This was the case in one of the cattle teeth analyzed by us, in which the hypoplastic enamel defects were, however, clearly discernible in ground sections. Microscopic analysis of tooth sections is recommended for recording of LEH in bovid teeth in cases where macroscopic examination of tooth surfaces alone does not produce unequivocal results.     

Absolute age and tooth eruption and wear sequences in sheep and goat: determining age-at-death in zooarchaeology using a modern control sample

This paper seeks to improve our understanding of the relationship between mandibular tooth eruption and wear sequences and absolute age in modern sheep and goat. While the relationship between tooth eruption and wear and absolute age has been investigated for primitive breeds in parts of the Old World, our pilot study extends the applicability of this research to modern breeds and to another geographic region (North America). A modern control sample of two species of domestic caprines – Ovis aries (sheep) and Capra hircus (goats) from Manitoba, Canada – are used to evaluate the two major systems for analyzing mandibular tooth wear and eruption (Payne and Grant) and for assigning an absolute age-at-death. In order to compare the two systems, an absolute age for Grant's Mandibular Wear Stages was established for the first time, previously demonstrated only for Payne's system. The analysis confirmed that there is a very high correlation between the known age and estimated age based on tooth eruption and wear. However, Payne's system generated far coarser age-at-death profiles, which lowers its utility in constructing harvest profiles. Grant's system is recommended for ageing be utilized since it can yield more sensitive age estimations. In conclusion, it is possible to utilize the modern caprine breeds to establish the relationship between tooth eruption and wear and absolute age to reconstruct age and season of death of archaeological samples.     

Seasonality and age structure in an archaeological assemblage of Sika deer (Cervus nippon)

Sika deer (Cervus nippon) was one of the major terrestrial mammals hunted in Japan throughout the Jomon period, which extends from the end of the Palaeolithic until the arrival of rice agriculture in the first millennium bc . Mandibular analysis of hunted deer is believed to be more useful in determining the season of death than antlers in archaeological contexts. This paper aims to present a new method of estimating an occupational season of a Jomon site by using sika deer mandibles. This method consists of two stages. First, two measurements on a mandible should be taken. If the distribution shows any gaps among young juveniles, this strongly suggests that the sika was hunted in a specific season. Second, tooth eruption and attrition stage should be observed; this may suggest the season in which hunting took place. This method was utilized to analyse sika deer remains from Awashimadai in eastern Kanto. The result of the analysis shows that deer were hunted only from spring to summer at Awashimadai. Putting these results together with the estimate of seasonality deduced from other species strongly suggests that the site was occupied only from April to July. This paper also examines how the tooth attrition stages of sika deer progress. The preliminary comparison with red deer (Cervus elaphus) in England suggests that molar wear progresses more quickly in sika than in red deer. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Correlation between dental occlusal wear and approximal facet length

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between occlusal surface wear and approximal facet length in a North American archaeological sample of modern human hunter–gatherers (n = 111) and agriculturalists (n = 123). First maxillary molars (M¹) were selected. The approximal wear facet was measured on the mesial surface of each M¹ at the widest breadth using needle tipped digital callipers. Digital images were taken of the occlusal surface and wear was recorded as the percentage of dentine exposed to the total occlusal surface. Independent age estimate was based on age‐related changes, (pubic symphysis and auricular surface). Results show the hunter–gatherers had a significantly faster rate of wear on both tooth surfaces compared to the agriculturalists in each of the four age groups. Both lifeway groups showed a positive correlation between the two tooth surfaces during the early stages of tooth wear (less than 25% occlusal wear), where the percentage of occlusal wear and the length of the approximal facet increased at a similar rate. During the middle and final stages of tooth wear (occlusal wear greater than 35%) there was a strong negative correlation between the two surfaces in both groups. It is suggested this pattern is due to the shape and function of the M¹. Both correlations were more extreme in the hunter–gatherers than the agriculturalists. When the per cent of occlusal wear exceeded 35% the length of the approximal facet started to decrease, and it is therefore recommended studies that include approximal wear exclude molars with heavy occlusal wear. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A longitudinal study of tooth growth in a single individual based on long- and short-period incremental markings in dentine and enamel

Ground sections of teeth from a single individual revealed approximately 30 fluorescent lines in the dentine resulting from successive courses of tetracycline antibiotics given over a period of approximately 12 years. In addition, many teeth showed long-period incremental markings in the dentine. Short-period daily cross-striations in the enamel were used to calculate the periodicity of the long-period incremental lines in both enamel and dentine. The incremental markings in the dentine were then used to calibrate the time of administration of each of the courses of tetracycline antibiotics. Enlarged micrographs of the teeth, constructed using fluorescence microscopy, were used to measure the increase in height of different teeth throughout the growth period on each occasion the tetracycline antibiotics were given. The times of initial mineralization of the teeth and the duration of crown formation were also determined for each tooth section. Line plots of tooth height against age were computed and used to calculate the rate of increase in tooth height during crown and root formation for one example of each tooth type. Initial rates of increase in height during enamel apposition and coronal dentine formation were fast, between 10 μm and 14 μm per day. During the latter phase of crown formation and during early root formation, tooth height increased at a slower rate of between 4 μm and 6 μm per day. Rates of increase in tooth height then rose to between 13 μm and 26 μm per day during the second half of root formation before falling off to a rate of approximately 4 μm per day during root completion (as the root apex formed). The times of initial crown mineralization and the total crown formation times estimated in this individual were all within the range known for modern humans but there was comparatively early mineralization of the third permanent molar. These findings are discussed in the context of other studies on human dental development.     

Prehistoric hunting pressure estimated by the age composition of excavated sika deer (Cervus Nippon) using the annual layer of tooth cement

Age of excavated sika deer was determined not only by the cement-annuli method but also by the observation method to avoid unnecessary destruction of archaeological materials. The observation method is based on tooth replacement, wear index and the appearance of cervical lines on the molar teeth. Stepwise discriminant analysis was used to establish a criterion for the age determination of excavated mandibles. Then the annulation method was carried out for well-preserved specimens older than 3–5 years. The age composition of excavated deer mandibles seems to have changed through the Jomon Period. Age composition at the Torihama sites (the Early Jomon Period) was characterized by an abundance of aged individuals, showing a close similarity with that of the recent deer population under protected conditions. Deer from the Kidosaku and Yahagi sites (the Late Jomon Period) and the SambuUbayama site (the Latest Jomon Period) were composed mainly of deer younger than 5 years, which seems to correspond to that of the recent hunted population living under natural conditions in Hokkaido. These data suggest that the hunting pressure increased during the Late and Latest Jomon Periods and compares with the pressures on recent hunted populations of sika deer.     

Analysis of Dental Cementum Rings as an Approach to Azilian Hunting Strategies

Abstract

Perfected by biologists, the analysis of dental cementum rings allows us to know the precise age of the animals studied as well as their season of death. Cementum deposits are layers of various density formed regularly during the animal's life. Large, translucid deposits (observed with polarized light), growing during the good season (spring, summer, autumn), alternate with thin, opaque ones that grow during the bad season (winter). Used to study two French Azilian sites, La Fru and Campalou, this method gives us a better understanding the hunting behaviour of these two human groups. Thus, the Azilian hunters who established their camp in the La Fru and Campalou rockshelters hunted around the site, killing ibex. However, these two groups of predators preferred red deer. Taking advantage of the hunting opportunities offered by the environment, hunters at both sites made opportune captures to the detriment of summer herds of hinds and young. Also, at Campalou, they continued their predation during the rut, concentrating on young animals, probably young males temporarily alone because of the mating season.     

Ways of Combining the Economy of the Indigenous Peoples of the North with New Economic Activities in Pioneering Areas

Integrated development of the pioneering areas of northern Siberia requires that the economy of the indigenous population be combined with the new mining industries. In the early stages of development this was achieved by hiring out reindeer as draft and pack animals to geological and other survey parties in remote areas. With the development of modern transportation, the reindeer economy should be reoriented from its past exclusive transport functions to the production of meat and hides for a growing urban population in the new mining settlements.     

Developmental defects and postmortem changes in archaeological pig teeth from Fais Island,Micronesia

The study investigated developmental defects of the dental hard tissues and postmortem changes in archaeological pig molars from Fais Island, Micronesia. The developmental defects of enamel were indicative of a disturbance of the secretory stage (accentuation of the incremental pattern, occurrence of Wilson bands and of hypoplastic defects) and the maturation stage of amelogenesis (hypomineralisation). Presence of coronal cementum in an M₃ indicated a partial premature breakdown of the reduced enamel epithelium or a partial demise of the enamel organ earlier during tooth development. Developmental defects of dentine presented as accentuated Andresen lines and areas of interglobular dentine. The pattern of developmental defects in the studied molars and the fact that deciduous premolars of the pigs from Fais did not exhibit developmental defects on macroscopic inspection are consistent with the hypothesis that the tooth defects were caused by periods of severe nutritional stress occurring after weaning. Postmortem changes caused by microbial infiltration were recorded in dentine and cementum. A presumed case of soft tissue preservation in the form of presence of odontoblast processes was observed in an M¹.     

Variability in cementum deposition in springbok from the South African Cape

Over the past two decades, cementum increment analysis has played an important role in determining the season of death of ungulates at archaeological sites in many parts of the world, but its potential to address questions of seasonality in South African prehistory has remained largely unexplored. The ability to determine the seasonality of hunting practices would prove an important asset to understanding the foraging strategies and mobility patterns of Middle and Later Stone Age people in this region. A sample of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) of known date-of-death was collected from the South African Cape, a region across which three different rainfall regimes are represented. This study documents a very general correspondence between rainfall patterns and cementum development in springbok but also a level of variability that exceeds that observed by studies in other regions. In two sub-samples in which the sex of all individuals is known, cementum deposition among females is more strongly correlated with season of death than it is among males. This difference may reflect the social organization of springbok. The findings for springbok highlight the complexity of applying cementum increment analysis to archaeological studies not only on the Cape but also in regions of similar climatic variability.     

Aging mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella): refining methods of tooth eruption and wear and bone fusion

This paper refines current methods for aging mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella), one of the most common species hunted by prehistoric humans in the southern Levant. Most importantly, we present a new tooth wear scheme for aging the lower deciduous fourth premolar (dP₄), the lower permanent molars (M₁, M₂, M₃) and the lower fourth premolar (P₄) of the gazelle. Broader wear stages for complete mandibles and individual teeth and bone fusion stages are also provided. Finally, a comparison of the tooth wear and bone fusion data indicates that the two methods can be linked at the important transition when a gazelle reaches adulthood (ca. 18 months of age). The completion of the fusion of the gazelle skeleton corresponds directly to the replacement of the dP₄ by the P₄ and the beginning of wear of the M₃. The coincidence of these aging indicators allows for direct comparison of gazelle bone fusion and tooth wear data.     

Protocol for Recording Enamel Hypoplasia in Modern and Archaeological Caprine Populations

This paper outlines the first methodology for recording dental enamel hypoplasia in the high‐crowned dentition of modern and archaeological caprine teeth. The method has been developed and trialed on five caprine populations from Orkney (UK); two modern populations (Shetland and North Ronaldsay breeds) and three Neolithic assemblages from the archaeological sites of Knap of Howar, Skara Brae and Holm of Papa Westray. Problems associated with differential tooth wear, as well as the presence of coronal cementum, are discussed, and recommendations are given on the identification and recording of hypoplastic dental defects in caprines. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tooth wear in two ancient populations of the Khazar Kaganat region in the Ukraine

Tooth wear is a common phenomenon in archaeological material. It has been related to the abrasiveness of diet and to the tribological attrition of teeth of individuals. Numerous investigations have been carried out in north and middle American samples as well as African anthropological material. Not much is known about tooth wear in European cultures. Eleven skulls from Chervona Gusarovka, and 14 skulls from the Upper Saltov sites of the Khazar Kaganat region (8th–10th centuries AD) in eastern Ukraine, with different diets were examined. A total of 208 teeth were studied for tooth wear, caries prevalence and periodontal status. Abrasion grades were determined according to a standardised classification and statistically evaluated. Periodontal status was measured using the distance between the enamel‐cementum junction and alveolar crest and the gingival attachment level respectively. Tooth wear was significantly different (P < 0.01) between the two populations. A low caries prevalence of 4.2% in the Chervona Gusarovka population and 1.7% in the Upper Saltov population was found. Significantly more alveolar crest bone resorption on the lingual side was found in the premolars and anterior teeth of the Chervona Gusarovka population. No significant differences were found regarding gingival attachment levels and gingival recession. It is concluded that the content and mode of food preparation influenced tooth wear, as reflected by the prevalence of dental caries and periodontal diseases in these ancient populations. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Miles Method of Assessing Age from Tooth Wear Revisited

Age-estimation methods tend to under-estimate advanced age and consequently life expectancy of populations. Many methods use age-scales ending in categories such as “50 years and over” without explaining how the upper limits are decided; the general belief that in early times life was short may play a part. Instances now exist of contemporary written records showing that, even when expectation of life is low, some people become septuagenarians or even older. Most methods of age-estimation, commencing with Gustafson's using dental criteria, predominantly root translucency, have recently been scrutinized by several workers but tooth wear as a method has escaped such scrutiny. A wide range of published findings based on tooth wear is therefore reviewed here. Most age-estimating criteria can only be assessed in terms of ordinal stages, unlike root translucency which can be measured on a continuous scale. Tooth wear ultimately ends in total loss of the dentition but, until that stage, has the potential, not yet fully developed, of also being so measured. The revision is reported of the 1989 estimated age-at-death distribution of a skeletal population. Based on tooth wear and tooth loss, the ages of most over 50 years of age were advanced by about 15 years and reasons are given for regarding four as likely to have been over 75 years of age. Palaeodemography today needs such survivors to be identified, however tentatively.     

Domestication,Reindeer Husbandry and the Development of Sámi Pastoralism

Abstract

A recurrent topic in ethnographic, historical and archaeological research has been the origins of Sámi reindeer pastoralism. The article discusses how prevailing theories have been influenced by general conceptual schemes, apriori constructed models and an extensive use of taxonomies. The debate has centered around how and when domestication took place, presupposing a paradigmatic change from hunting to pastoralism. However, there has probably never been an abrupt change; hunting and herding have both been parts of a multifaceted adaption existing up to the nineteenth century. What did change was the social organization of herding when a pastoral economy became the norm at that time. Such a change also had qualitative consequences in terms of new values and economic strategies.     

Pulp Stones Prevalence in a Historical Sample from Radom,Poland (ad 1791–1811)

This paper provides an investigation of pulp stones in a sample drawn from the historical population of Radom, Poland, dating to between ad 1791 and 1811. This study seeks to determine the frequency of pulp stones, and assess the association between pulp stones and sex, age, dental caries, and dental wear. A total of 780 teeth from 121 adult individuals of both sexes (45 females, 76 males) were examined. Analysis was limited to molars. The average age‐at‐death of each individual was estimated. Total wear scores across the molars were calculated for each individual. Pulp stones were identified by a portable dental X‐ray machine. Pulp stones were found in 94 of 121 individuals and in 273 of 780 molars. No statistically significant correlation was found between pulp stones and age‐at‐death (p  = 0.7625) and sex (p  = 0.0915), but a significant relationship was found between pulp stones and dental wear (p  < 0.0001) and dental caries (p  = 0.0016). Our study found that molars affected by highly advanced dental wear were significantly more often accompanied by pulp stones than molars that had experienced limited wear. Similarly, significant correlations were observed for dental caries. It means that pulp stone formation appears to have been contingent upon the irritation of the tooth crown by factors such as forces acting on the tooth crown leading to dental wear or dental caries. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Diaphyseal growth in a nineteenth century skeletal sample of subadults from St Thomas' church,Belleville, Ontario

This study presents skeletal growth data for a nineteenth century church cemetery sample from Belleville, Ontario. Skeletal growth profiles (SGPs), plotting measurements of growth against age estimated by tooth formation, were constructed for the sample. Means and confidence intervals for 1-year cohorts up to 12 years of age are presented for each of the long bones, the ilium and scapula. Comparison of the SGPs created for this sample with modern and archaeological samples demonstrates that the nineteenth century Belleville children followed a growth pattern similar to their modern counterparts, at least until 12 years of age. It is recommended that these data can be used by other investigators as a comparative sample of nineteenth century children; they can also be used as standards of growth for the purpose of estimating age from diaphyseal lengths for other archaeological samples of similar temporal context and population affinities. It is argued that confidence intervals rather than standard deviations be used to report variation, as the former controls for sample size as well as variance.