Transformation of forest policy regimes in Finland since the 19th century

In this paper, interpretations of sustainable forestry are investigated against the historical background of transformations in the industrial utilisation of forests. Three distinct forest policy regimes in Finland since the 19th century are identified. First, the introduction of the German forestry model, with the central notion of sustained yield, and the establishment of the Finnish Forest Service took place simultaneously in the latter half of the 19th century. These actions aimed at changing patterns of local forest use considered detrimental to long-term forest utilisation. Second, a national forest sector was established during the 20th century. Industrial forestry was seen as a guarantee of economic independence for the new nation-state. Third, during a recent phase the influence of non-governmental organisations and international forest industry companies has increased, and traditional power relations have changed as issues such as biodiversity, forest certification and global investments have been introduced to the debates. It is concluded that the recent transformations in forest management should be read as transformations in industrial forestry rather than as abandonment of industrial forest use models; the legacy of the 19th century German forest science still prevails in forest management.     

20世纪九十年代以来《庄子》神话研究综述简

《庄子》中存在着大量的神话材料,自王国维开启以神话眼光看《庄子》的先河后,鲁迅、郎擎霄、闻一多、茅盾、顾颉刚等许多学者开始关注《庄子》与神话的关系,并取得了一定的成绩。进入新时期后,对《庄子》神话的研究进入了一个更深更全面的阶段,鉴于此,有必要对研究成果进行一番梳理,有利于推动《庄子》神话研究的发展。《庄子》神话研究成果主要集中在神话与寓言研究、神话原型和意象研究、神话思维研究、神仙思想研究。     

The maritime landscape of Kilwa Kisiwani and its region,Tanzania, 11th to 15th century AD

East African coastal archaeological research has traditionally concentrated on the stone towns. In contrast, this study adopts a maritime cultural landscape approach by examining one of those towns, Kilwa, in its wider setting towards the peak of its economic success. Using archaeological evidence derived from coastal and inter-tidal survey and excavation, it identifies the environmental advantages of Kilwa′s estuarine location and resources that are exploited by a series of settlements providing marine produce and construction materials. The maritime approaches to the town also provide the context for a cultural display of religious allegiance and power through the symbolism of conspicuously sited mosques and a more perplexing series of causeways. Knowledge of the wider integrated coastal environment is seen as key to understanding the culture and economy of the region.     

泾、浜发展与吴淞江流域的圩田水利(9-15世纪)

自宋代的塘浦系统开始瓦解以来,吴淞江流域的泾浜体系开始发展。泾浜水系和以后溇的出现,基本上人为形成的。在不断的历史发展中,泾浜体系形成具有干枝结构的网状水系,这种结构非常稳定地存在了近500年。这种结构下的圩田水利模式一般是小圩模式。在冈身感潮地区,泾浜体系比较密集,且末端水系有弯曲化现象;在低地地区,为了排水的方便,河道的干枝体系较为顺直。在这种体系下,治水必须与治田相结合。到后期,随着圩田治理的深化,进一步出现了称为溇的末端水系。     

19世纪末20世纪初奕劻外交活动真相

19世纪末20世纪初,中国外交矛盾交织.庆亲王奕劻以皇族特殊身份进入中央政权,执掌军政外交,参与处理清廷与义和团、八国联军进犯北京和列强签订<辛丑议和条约>等.从中看出奕劻外交中的特点及经验教训,将给人们以启迪.     

Tonnages and displacements in the 16th century

Questions associated with the size of ships suggested in historical documents are relevant to giving an idea of the volume of cargoes, the size of crews, cost of freights, or when trying to evaluate competitive advantages in war and commerce. Good estimates are often difficult to obtain from the written record, although some values concerning basic hull dimensions are sometimes mentioned. The establishment of reliable relations between registered capacity, as expressed in coeval documents, and displacement, as it is defined nowadays, would be helpful to both historical and archaeological research. This paper probes into the relations between a number of known formulas to calculate tonnages in the 16th century, and the reconstructed hull of the Pepper Wreck, an archaeologically excavated shipwreck dated to 1606.     

Aspects of the sugar-refining industry from the 16th to the 19th century

This paper considers some aspects of the sugar-refining industry in Britain from the 16th to the 19th century. The pottery types involved are defined, and illustrated by examples from different parts of the country. The method of manufacturing sugar loaves is discussed, and the technology is placed in a wider context, drawing upon archaeological and historical evidence from the Old and New Worlds.     

Molecular and osteometric sexing of cattle metacarpals: a case study from 15th century AD Beja,Portugal

In the course of a zooarchaeological survey of Holocene sites in southern Portugal, a substantial size increase of cattle bones was noted following the Christian reconquista of the 11th–13th centuries AD. A size increase in the course of time within a lineage of domestic livestock is usually considered to represent animal improvement. However several other factors including sex may influence the average size of a sample of mammal bones – cattle exhibit considerable sexual size dimorphism, with bulls being larger than cows. A histogram of the distal widths of a large (n = 44) sample of cattle metacarpals from 15th century Beja (Alentejo, Portugal), revealed a bimodal distribution. It was assumed that the large measurements belonged to males and the small to females. In order to rule out the possibility of a post-Moslem change in the sex ratio of cattle, a sub-sample of 21 cattle metacarpals from Beja was selected and we used genetic markers to identify the sex of the animals to which these metacarpals belonged. The ancient DNA sex of all specimens agreed with the previously assumed sex as determined osteometrically. We conclude that the two nearly separated peaks for the metacarpal distal width measurements do indeed indicate sex. A similar bimodal distribution was obtained from another large but earlier sample of cattle metacarpals from Moslem Alcáçova de Santarém (9th–12th century AD). Although these have not been molecularly sexed and since osteometric sexing has now been validated, we conclude that both small (female) and large (male) peaks are smaller than the 15th century ones and that there was an overall size increase or improvement of cattle in this region. Why the Christians improved cattle is unclear, but a selection for larger beeves for meat is one possibility as is the selection of more robust cattle for power. The spread of the quadrangular or chariot plough in Iberia is known to have occurred at this time. We then use the genetically sexed metacarpals to determine which measurements provide reasonable distinction between the sexes. Both the distal width (BFd; as already noted by Svensson et al., 2008; in Swedish medieval cattle) and the width of the lateral condyle (WCL) offer the best distinction. We also used them as a reference ‘collection’ to sex the medieval and post-medieval cattle metacarpals from Launceston Castle in England. This re-visit of the Launceston data corroborates other evidence indicating increased specialisation (milk and veal) in post-medieval cattle husbandry in England.     

On the Horn-shaped Head-Dresses of the 13th, 14th,and 15th Centuries

Abstract

The excavation of the only Cistercian abbey firmly established on the Isle of Man produced clear evidence of its church plan, its various modifications and its modest architectural pretensions. The burials contained some grave goods and displayed early methods of burial. An unexpected feature was a chapel attached to the east end of the north transept north chapel.     

Speakers at War in the Late 14th and 15th Centuries

The significance of war in the development of the medieval English parliament is well known. The origins of the speakership are located in the context of the Hundred Years War, which began in 1337 and in which the English were still embroiled at the time of the Good Parliament of 1376. It was at this parliament that the Commons first chose a spokesperson, Sir Peter de la Mare, knight of the shire for Herefordshire. This article considers the military careers of de la Mare and his successors to the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453. Did the war have an impact on the choice of Speaker? Was a military man chosen for parliaments where military matters were to be discussed? We know the identity of the Speaker in 53 of the 64 parliaments between 1376 and 1453. Several served more than once, so that we are left with a group of 33 individuals to analyse. An overall trend is discernable. Up to 1407 all known Speakers were belted knights, and most had extensive military experience before they took up office. Only five of the 19 parliaments between 1422 and 1453 had Speakers of knightly rank: otherwise, Speakers with legal and administrative, rather than military, experience were chosen. In the years from 1407 to 1422 the speakership was occupied by a mixture of soldiers and administrators many of whom were closely connected to the royal duchy of Lancaster and to revival of English aggression towards France from 1415 onwards.