Equatorial scintillations—a review

The scintillation technique, as is well known, provides an integrated measure of phase and amplitude fluctuations imposed on radio signals over a wide range of frequencies during their propagation through the ionosphere. The large amplitude of equatorial irregularities necessitates the use of frequencies in the GHz band to obtain unambiguously the temporal variation of irregularity intensity and the effect of irregularity anisotropy. Recent observations of equatorial scintillations will be reviewed with an emphasis on GHz measurements. The steep spatial gradients observed in in-situ data and their relationship to intense GHz scintillations will be explored. Co-ordinated measurements of equatorial irregularities by such techniques as radar backscatter, in-situ rocket and satellite, total electron content and 6300 Å airglow will be discussed, insofar as they provide a better understanding of the scintillation phenomena. While it is difficult to critically assess results that are so recent and constantly evolving, we have attempted to focus attention on the outstanding problems that still remain in the field.     

Atmospheric tides—a review

Studies on atmospheric tides are reviewed with an emphasis on theory and recent important observations. Numerical simulation seems to be promising to elucidate the variability of observed tides. Radar observation will be powerful to obtain the precise vertical structure of tides in the middle atmosphere as well as the thermosphere. Various unsolved problems are pointed out.     

The MST technique—a brief review

The purpose of this paper is to briefly review the MST (mesosphere-stratosphere-troposphere) radar technique for remotely observing the atmosphere in the height range 1–100 km. Particular emphasis will be directed here toward aspects of the subject related to the equatorial atmosphere—a region in which the overall circulation and dynamics is poorly understood. Some of the current MST capabilities will be demonstrated via data obtained from existing observatories located in the tropics. A case will be made for the necessity of having additional equatorial-region observatories, and an example of a reasonably economical system will be discussed.     

Palaeontology of the Chatham Islands,SW Pacific—a review

Despite their small area, the Chatham Islands host diverse and abundant fossils. Fossil assemblages of Permian to Late Cretaceous age preserved in terrestrial to shallow marine deposits represent the only record of plants and animals that once inhabited the eastern extension of Zealandia. Lower Cenozoic sediments have yielded a shallow marine fauna, including a rich molluscan assemblage linked to the oceanic inundation of this landmass. The late Cenozoic biota documents the re-emergence of the Chatham Islands and the establishment of major oceanic currents, which meet along the Chatham Rise. This review summarizes the fossil record of the Chatham Islands and the Chatham Rise, integrating data from published and unpublished sources.     

Brain–computer interfaces: a review

Abstract

The potential of remotely sensed data to analyze resources on the surface of the Earth was transformed by the launch of the first Landsat spacecraft in 1972. Here the principal features of present and future Earth resource satellites and sensors are discussed, and four case histories provided where such data are proving of high practical value. The examples are in the fields of geological exploration for oil and gas, commercial forecasting of crop production, multi-resource surveys of developing countries, and the production of regional photomaps. None of these applications could be performed at reasonable cost and within a reasonable time without the use of satellite data.     

The caliphs’ last heritage: a review

EUROPE

The British Isles. By A. Demangeon. Translated and revised by E. D. Laborde, PH.D., F.R.G.s. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xviii +434. 80 figs. 56 plates. London : William Heinemann Ltd. Second edition, 1949. 21s.

British Canals : An Illustrated History. By Charles Hadfield. 8 1/2 × 5 1/2. Pp. 259. 44 text illustrations. 8 plates. 17 sketch maps. London : Phoenix House Ltd, 1950. 16s.

The Scottish Countryside in Pictures. Foreword and Introductions by F. Fraser Darling. Illustrations described by Alasdair Alpin MacGregor. 9 3/4 × 7. Pp. 128. Illustrated. London : Odhams Press Ltd, 1950. Reprinted, 1951. 125s 6d.

Glossary of the most common Gaelic and Scandinavian Elements used in Place‐Names on Ordnance Survey Maps of Scotland. Compiled by The Royal Scottish Geographical Society. 8 1/4 ×5. Pp. 12. Chessington : Director General of the Ordnance Survey, 1951. 2s.

A History of Scottish Farming. By T. Bedford Franklin. 7 1/4 ×5. Pp. ix+194. 14 plates. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1952. 12s 6d.

Highlands of Scotland. By Seton Gordon. 8 1/2 ×5 1/2. Pp. 328. 49 illustrations. Map. [The County Books.] London : Robert Hale Ltd, 1951. 18s.

Kayak to Cape Wrath. By J. Lewis Henderson. 7 1/4 ×5. Pp.230. 21 photographs.

The Fame Islands : Their History and Wild Life. By Grace Watt, M.A., M.B.O.U. 8 1/2 ×5 1/2. Pp. 236. 4 figs. 33 photographs. London : Country Life Ltd, 1951. 30s.

Wanderings in the Pennines. By William T. Palmer, F.R.G.S., M.B.O.U., F.S.A. SCOT. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. 288. 31 illustrations by G. Douglas Bolton. End‐paper map. London : Skeffington and Son Ltd, 1951. 15s.

Cheshire. By Fred H. Crossley. 8 1/2 ×5 1/2. Pp. xii+376. 49 illustrations. Map. [The County Books.] London: Robert Hale Ltd, 1949. 15s.

Leicestershire. By Guy Paget, D.L., F.R.HIST.S., and Lionel Irvine, M.B.E., M.A.(OXON.). 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xii+307. 49 illustrations. Map. [The County Books.] London: Robert Hale Ltd, 1950. 15s.

Forgotten Ports of England. By George Goldsmith Carter. 8 3/4×5 5/8. Pp. x+206. Photographs. 3 maps. End‐paper plan of Rye. London : Evans Brothers Ltd, 1951. 21s.

Dorset. By Eric Benfield. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. x+232. 49 illustrations. Map. [The County Books.] London : Robert Hale Ltd, 1950. 15s.

The Bailiwick of Jersey. By G. R. Balleine. 8 ×5 1/4. Pp. xxxi+170. 114 photographs. End‐paper sketch map. [The King's Channel Islands.] London : Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, 1951. 12s 6d.

Færoerne : Folk og Erhverv. By Aa. H. Kampp. 8 1/2×5 3/4. Pp. 112. 40 figs. [Geografkredsen.] København : Det Danske Forlag, 1950.

The West European City : A Geographical Interpretation. By Robert E. Dickinson, M.A., PH.D. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xviii+580. 129 figs. 29 plates. [International Library of Sociology and Social Reconstruction.] London : Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd, 1951. 42s.

Belgium and Luxembourg. By Tudor Edwards. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. vii+128. 109 illustrations. 2 sketch maps. London : B. T. Batsford Ltd, 1951. 15s.

Luxembourg: Land of Legends. By W. J. Taylor‐Whitehead. 7 1/2×5. Pp. xiv+130. 17 illustrations. End‐paper sketch map. London : Constable and Co. Ltd, 1951. 12s 6d.

French Châteaux. By Henri Lemaître. 12 ×9 1/2. Pp. 39+224 photographs. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd, 1950. 50s.

Mediterranean Background. By Bernard Newman. 8 1/2 ×5 1/2. Pp.286. 64 illustrations. 10 sketch maps. London: Robert Hale Ltd, 1949. 16s.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Geography of Russia. By N. T. Mirov. 9×6. Pp. xii+362. 34 maps. New York : John Wiley and Sons Inc. London : Chapman and Hall Ltd, 1951. 52s.

ASIA

The Scottish Himalayan Expedition. By W. H. Murray. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xiii+282. 4 colour plates. 32 half‐tone plates. 11 sketch maps and diagrams by Robert Anderson. London : J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd, 1951. 30s.

The Far East: A Social Geography. By A. D. C. Peterson, O.B.E., B.A. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. 336. 43 illustrations. 25 and end‐paper sketch maps. London : Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd, 1949. 21s.

INDIAN OCEAN

Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. By George Fadlo Hourani. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp.viii+131. 8plates. 7sketchmaps. [Princeton Oriental Studies, Vol. 13.] Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1951. $3.00. London : Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press. 20s.

Fourteen Men : The Story of the Australian Antarctic Expedition to Heard Island. By Arthur Scholes. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. x+273. 21 illustrations. 2 sketch maps. London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1951. 15s.

AFRICA

Mauretania : Warrior, Man, and Woman. By Sacheverell Sitwell. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. 328. 21 photographs by Lady Alexandra Metcalfe. London : Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd. Third impression, 1951. 21s.

Ex‐Italian Somaliland. By E. Sylvia Pankhurst. Foreword by Peter Freeman, M.P. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. 460. 21 illustrations. 5 sketch maps. London : C. A. Watts and Co. Ltd, 1951. 12s 6d.

Congo Eden. By Mary L. Jobe Akeley, A.M., LITT.D., F.R.O.S. Foreword by Professor William King Gregory. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xv+356. 13 illustrations. Map. London : Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1951. 18s.

South African Scenery : A Textbook of Geomorphology. By Lester C. King, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.(S.A.). 8 3/4×5 5/8. Pp. xxxi+379. 79 figs. 267 plates. Coloured map. Edinburgh and London : Oliver and Boyd Ltd. Second edition, revised, 1951. 45s.

Journals of Andrew Geddes Bain. Trader, Explorer, Soldier, Road Engineer and Geologist. Edited, with biographical sketch and footnotes, by Margaret Hermina Lister. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xxxix+264. 19 illustrations. 4 maps. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society [Vol. 30], 1949. 20s.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

North Atlantic : Boat against Boat over 3,000 Miles. By Adlard Coles. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. 191. 9 figs. 30 plates. End‐paper chart. Southampton : Robert Ross and Co. Ltd. London : George G. Harrap and Co. Ltd. Second edition, 1951. 15s 6d.

AMERICA

The Westward Crossings : Balboa, Mackenzie, Lewis and Clark. By Jeanette Mirsky. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xv+365+xiii. 21 illustrations. 3 maps. London: Allan Wingate (Publishers) Ltd, 1951. 21s.

An Introduction to the Geography of the Canadian Arctic. By J. L. Robinson, N. L. Nicholson, J. K. Fraser, B. V. Gutsell, and D. Leechman. 9 1/4×6. Pp. xiii + 118. 18 maps and diagrams. 17 plates. [Canadian Geography Information Series No. 2.] Ottawa : Geographical Branch, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, 1951. $0.50.

Chile. An Outline of its Geography, Economics, and Politics. By Gilbert J. Butland. 8×5 1/4. Pp. vii+128. 7 figs. London and New York: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1951. 12s 6d.

OCEANIA

The Pacific Islands. By Douglas L. Oliver. 9 1/2×6 1/4. Pp. xi+313. Decorations and sketch maps by Sheila Mitchell Oliver. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 1951. $5.00. London : Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press. 32s 6d.

Beyond the Southern Lakes : The Explorations of W. G. Grave. Edited by Anita Crozier. Foreword by Sir T. A. Hunter. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. 124. 11 illustrations. End‐paper sketch map. Wellington, N.Z. : A. H. and A. W. Reed, 1950. 12s 6d.

POLAR REGIONS

I married an Explorer. By Miriam MacMillan. 8 1/4×5 1/4. Pp.238. 31 illustrations. London : Hurst and Blackett Ltd, 1951. 15s.

BIOGEOGRAPHY

Zoogeography of the Land and Inland Waters. By L. F. De Beaufort. 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. viii +208. 10 figs. [Text‐Books of Animal Biology.] London : Sidgwick and Jackson Ltd, 1951. 30s.

A World Dictionary of Breeds, Types, and Varieties of Livestock. By I. L. Mason, B.A. (CANTAB.). 9 3/4×6 1/4. Pp. 272. [Technical Communication No. 8 of the Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh.] Farnham Royal : Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, 1951. 30s.

EDUCATIONAL

Geography in the Secondary School, with special reference to the Secondary Modern School. By E. W. H. Briault and D. W. Shave. Foreword by Leonard Brooks. 9 1/2×6. Pp. 36. Sheffield : The Geographical Association, 1952. 2s. post free.

Outlines of General Geography. By E. O. Robinson, m.a. 7 1/2×5 1/4. Pp. xi+239. 101 photographs, diagrams, and maps. London : Macmillan and Co. Ltd, 1951. 7s 6d.

The Earth's Crust : A New Approach to Physical Geography and Geology. By L. Dudley Stamp, C.B.E., B.A., D.Sc. Foreword by Isaiah Bowman, 9 3/4×7 1/2. Pp. viii+120. 74 figs. 32 coloured plates. London: George G. Harrap and Co. Ltd, 1951. 18s.

Physical Geography. By Arthur N. Strahler. 11×J 1/2 Pp. ix+442. Illustrated. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1951. $6.00. London: Chapman and Hall Ltd. 48s.

France : A Regional and Economic Geography. By H. Ormsby, D.Sc.(ECON.). 8 1/2×5 1/2. Pp. xiv+525. 103 figs. London: Methuen and Co. Ltd. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co. Inc. Second edition, revised, 1950. 25s.

A Regional Geography of Ceylon. By S. F. de Silva, B.A. Foreword by L. McD. Robison. 8×5 1/2. Pp. xi+264. 97 figs. Colombo : The Colombo Apothecaries’ Company Ltd. Revised edition, 1949. Rs 4.

Exploration and Adventure. By Clifford Collinson, F.R.G.S. 7 1/2×5. Pp. 151. Illustrated. Decorative end‐paper maps. London : George Alien and Unwin Ltd, 1951. 3s 6d.

GENERAL

Vergleichende Länderkunde. By Norbert Krebs. 9×6. Pp. xx+484. 18 maps. [Geographische Handbücher.] Stuttgart : K. F. Koehler Verlag, 1951.

Geography, Justice, and Politics at the Paris Conference of 1919. By Charles Seymour. Introduction by Roland L. Redmond. 8 3/4×6. Pp. iv+24. [Bowman Memorial Lectures, Series One.] New York : The American Geographical Society, 1951. $1.50.

Exploration and Discovery. By H. J. Wood, B.Sc., Ph.D. 7 1/2×4 3/4. Pp. 192. 10 figs. End‐paper sketch maps. London : Hutchinson's University Library, 1951. 8s 6d.

ATLASES AND MAPS

The Oxford Atlas. Edited by Brigadier Sir Clinton Lewis, O.B.E., Colonel J. D. Campbell, D.S.O., with the assistance of D. P. Bickmore and K. F. Cook. 15 1/2×10 1/2. Pp. 96+xxvi (Distribution Maps) +90 (Gazetteer). London: The Oxford University Press, 1951. 30s. School Edition, 25s.

A Palaeographical Atlas of the British Isles and Adjacent Parts of Europe. By Leonard J. Wills. 8 1/2×11. Pp.64. 22 plates. Glasgow and London : Blackie and Son Ltd, 1951. 21s.

Atlas von Niederösterreich. Issued by the Kommission für Raumforschung und Wiederaufbau der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, and Verein der Landeskunde von Niederösterreich und Wien. Edited by Dr ERIK ARNBERGER. 16×22¼. Part I, 20 map‐sheets. Wien: Kartographische Anstalt Freytag‐Berndt und Artaria, 1951.

Main Areas of Tea Production. 18×28. Prepared by Geographia Ltd. London: The Tea Bureau, 1950.     

Neutral density cells in the high latitude thermosphere—2. Mechanisms

NCAR-TIGCM simulations predict mesoscale cellular structures in the high latitude neutral density at altitudes from 120–350 km. During magnetically active conditions, the density structure at 200 km consists of low-density cells near dawn and dusk and high-density cells near noon and midnight. Mechanisms causing the structured density cells are a result of thermosphere-ionosphere coupling and can be explained in terms of dynamic meteorology. For example, at high latitudes ion drag causes the neutral circulation to flow cyclonically in the dawn sector and anticyclonically in the dusk sector. Low densities are contained within the cyclonic circulation at all altitudes. Below about 170 km, the densities inside the anticyclonic flow are high, while above that altitude densities within the anticyclonic flow are low. While typical dynamic meteorology explains low densities in the centre of cyclonic circulation and high densities inside anticyclonic circulation, the dusk low-density cell in the centre of anticyclonic flow is unexpected. The anticyclonic dusk low-density cell is explained by anomalous antibaric flow due to high-speed winds. 120 km and 200 km altitudes are used to demonstrate the relationship between the high latitude densities and winds as well as the effect of joule heating and auroral particle precipitation on the density structures.     

Recent progress in transequatorial propagation—review

Transequatorial propagation of HF and VHF radio waves is placed into three categories according to the physical mechanisms. Specular reflection off the underside of the anomalously dense equatorial F-layer is predictable by ray tracing and limited to frequencies less than about 60 MHz. Multipoint reflection from bottomside irregularities applies for the same radio frequencies but is associated with travelling ionospheric disturbances and spread-F traces on ionograms. This type of TEP may be used as a technique for studying some of the properties of bottomside irregularities. Ducted propagation of VHF waves depends upon high plasma density gradients and occurs along equatorial plasma bubbles during the evening hours. Observations on the ducted VHF mode relate to the behaviour of plasma bubbles.     

Winds in the ionosphere—A review

Winds in the upper atmosphere, and their effect on the ionosphere, are reviewed with an emphasis on information useful to ionospheric studies. The winds are driven by pressure gradients from solar and auroral heating, with some forcing by tidal energy from below. Simple calculations which balance the pressure gradient by ion drag and Coriolis forces are generally unreliable, so large-scale numerical models of the coupled atmosphere and ionosphere are required. The accuracy of these global models is limited by uncertainties in the energy inputs at high latitudes and at the lower boundary (about 90 km). The best current wind data come from incoherent scatter radar or airglow installations, at a few sites and for only a few nights per month. Satellite data are also available for several years, and results to 1989 are incorporated in the global HWM90 model. This seems acceptable for determining mean winds at night, less good during the day, and least good in the southern hemisphere where few data were available. Plots are given to show the mean winds at different latitudes and longitudes, for use in ionospheric calculations.Meridional winds alter the height of the mid-latitude F layer, causing large changes in the effective loss rate. This is the major cause of observed seasonal changes, of differences between the hemispheres, and of changes at different longitudes. An increased knowledge of the winds is essential for further progress in F region studies. Ionospheric data provide the most promising route, using routinely scaled parameters. The simplest calculations compare observed peak heights, obtained from M (3000)F2, with the value h_o predicted by simplified “servo” equations. Errors occurring for some hours after sunrise can be overcome using model results to define h_o this allows rapid and accurate wind calculations at dip latitudes of 23–62°. Winds can also be obtained from full model calculations, designed to match observed values of peak height or density.     

Palaeobotany is blooming: 1970–1979, a review

During the ten years covered by this review, the foci of studies in palaeobotany of plant megafossils and certain non-palynological plant microfossils included Precambrian palaeobotany, early vascular plants, Palaeozoic pteridosperms, conifers, and angiosperms. Botanically orientated investigations displayed an increasing use of the electron microscope. Interpretations of palaeoecology and reproductive biology of fossil plants gained increasing momentum. Biostratigraphic studies underwent some new activation but generally took second place to the amount of morphological work. The number of palaeobotanists who completed or received their training during the decade augurs well for the future; there is still much to be done.     

Ngawang Norbu s Diary——a Record of a Special Mountaineering Event

Editor's Notes: On May 8~(th),the Beijing Olympic torch relay team successfully reached the summit of Mt.Qomolangma. About 9:11a.m,at a spot 30 meters from the peak, Lozang Dradul ignited the first torch that had been named"Auspicious Clouds"and was held by the female Tibetan mountaineer Jiji.Then,the torch was relayed to Wang Yongfeng,Nyima Tsering,Huang Chungui,and     

Cologne—a creative city

The paper addresses the problem which conditions account for the creativity of a city. Network analysis is used as an approach to study the major institutions and individuals that contributed to the success of Cologne becoming a German arts centre. The impact of this network on the city's eeconomy and functional specialization is analyzed for the period 1960-1995. To this end, the demographic and economic changes of the city are described comparing Cologne to four other major German cities. Furthermore, the impact of policy and administration creativity is examined. The major finding is that it is less the creative structure that accounts for the success, but rather indiviuals in different institutions that played a major role in shaping both the institution's policies and contributing to the city's economic growth.     

Neutral density cells in the high latitude thermosphere—1. Solar maximum cell morphology and data analysis

A new high latitude thermospheric neutral density structure has been revealed in NCAR-TIGCM simulations at 120–350 km altitude. The structure consists of density cells above 50° latitude with radii of approximately 1000 km. There are between two to four cells present depending on the altitude and magnetic activity. For example, at 200 km under magnetically active conditions, the density structure consists of four cells: low density cells are located near dawn and dusk and high density cells are located near noon and midnight. Density variations among the cells range from 5 to 50% for magnetically quiet and active conditions respectively. The cells are present at all seasons, for a wide range of magnetic activity levels, and at solar minimum and solar maximum. The density cell morphology is established for equinox solar maximum as a function of altitude and magnetic activity. Departures of the cell structure from this morphology due to seasonal and solar cycles are discussed. The cell morphology provides a new framework in which to interpret lower thermospheric density data. Data to test and confirm the model predictions were provided by the SETA-1 satellite.     

Critical review of desalination in Spain: a resource for the future?

There have been significant territorial changes in the Spanish Mediterranean in the last few decades because of the important growth of residential tourism functions. The Spanish National Hydrological Plan ( 2001 ) and, to a greater extent, the Action for Management and Use of Water Programme ( 2004 ) advocated large‐scale desalination of seawater to guarantee a supply for urban, tourism, and even future agricultural demands. The paralysis of urban development planning caused by the financial crisis (2007/08), together with the downward trend in the consumption of drinking water in the last decade, highlighted a capacity to produce desalinated water that was far superior to actual needs. This study reviews the current context in which desalinated water is produced in Spain, weighs up the advantages and disadvantages of this method of water management, and considers the potential role that this non‐conventional source of water could play as a strategic resource in the future. The main findings of the study are that desalination is not a panacea; rather, it should be considered in terms of technological parameters tailored to the circumstances of each geographical and socioeconomic environment.     

Neutral Bystander,Intrusive Micromanager,or Useful Catalyst?

An analysis of Forest Service-related legislative activity found that increasingly Congress is becoming involved in agency activities and decisionmaking. Congress's growing scrutiny and management of the Forest Service is indicated by rising trends in requests for agency testimony at congressional hearings, in the number of Forest Service-related bills and amendments introduced in Congress, and in the amount of Forest Service-related legislation enacted. Anecdotal evidence of direct political pressure imposed upon agency personnel by congressional members also indicates that much congressional influence occurs outside of these legislative activities. An examination of activities such as these and directives attached to annual appropriation bills also shows that not all congressional actions are productive in fostering positive agency change. The results of this study indicate the likelihood that Congress has been playing a major role in instigating change within the agency.