Probabilistic models of seasonal <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bison</Emphasis> exploitation based on fetal prey osteometry and reproductive phenology

Seasonality studies are a staple of Great Plains archaeology, but obtaining evidence for seasonal food procurement is challenging. This study explores seasonality through the lens of fetal bison remains. A method is developed that produces intra-annual probability distributions for the date of fetal death. These distributions are informed by osteometric data from fetal bison in archaeological contexts, fetal skeletal growth curves, and data-driven models of bison conception dates. Probabilities can be assigned to seasonality hypotheses by examining date intervals across these intra-annual distributions. This method is implemented through an R program and applied to seasonality hypotheses at three archaeological sites containing fetal bison remains: Big Goose Creek (Wyoming), Baker Cave III (Idaho), and the Upper Tucker Site (Texas). Unlike previous efforts to infer seasonality from fetal bison remains, this method provides explicit probabilities showing the level of agreement between the osteometric data and seasonality hypotheses. This probabilistic approach could be extended to seasonality studies involving other animal taxa both within and outside of North America.     

Observations on Seasonality and Mortality from a Recent Catastrophic Death Assemblage

On 3 November 1991, a group of 150 pronghorn went over a cliff near Green River, Wyoming. This mortality site provides a unique opportunity to examine a number of characteristics of catastrophic death assemblages that may aid in the interpretation of archaeological bonebed sites. In 1993, the mandibles were collected for a study of seasonality and age estimation. Examination of seasonality revealed some variation in estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increments. Six percent of 86 fawn specimens exhibit eruption and wear more advanced than expected for a November third event, and 21% of 28 cementum increment estimates differ from the known November third mortality date by a month or more. These data suggest some degree of error is inherent in seasonality estimates that must be considered when interpreting seasonal distributions. Age estimates by eruption and wear reveal a distribution of pronghorn ages with many more juvenile animals than expected for a known “catastrophic” event. This may be explained by the pattern of seasonal hunting in a modern managed herd, which is likely to be very different than aboriginal hunting patterns. Age estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increment techniques failed to agree within six months in 48% of 29 test cases, with a tendency for cementum ages to be younger in 71% of specimens in which estimates of age differed. In general, the mandible assemblage exhibited more variability than one might expect for a single catastrophic kill event.     

Polarizing Microscopy Identification of Chemical Diagenesis in Archaeological Cementum

Cementum increment analysis can potentially retrieve relatively complete, high-precision seasonality and mortality profiles from archaeological mammalian tooth assemblages. However, cementum exhibits many similarities to bone in composition, histology, ultrastructure, and even microstructure. Consequently, the mineralized dental tissue may be prone to the same processes of post-depositional chemical alteration that affect bone. This article reviews the issues surrounding chemical diagenesis in cementum and presents a new application to archaeological ungulate cementum of a polarizing microscopy technique that has previously been utilized to identify the effects of chemical diagenesis in archaeological bone and human cementum (Geusa et al., 1999; Gilbert, 1989; Watson, 1975; Zeder, 1978). It is argued that the post mortem leaching of collagen and the diagenetic growth of apatite crystallites can develop into banded features that mimic seasonal cementum increments. This pattern of diagenesis is demonstrated in multiple locations on a macroscopically well-preserved Upper Pleistocene-age archaeological tooth, which was previously interpreted by the author to exhibit biogenic seasonal cementum increments (Stutz, 1993; Stutz et al., 1995). It is suggested that if researchers seek to retrieve seasonality and mortality data from archaeological cementum, the microscopy analysis protocol must include screening of a pilot sample for the frequency and extent of chemical diagenesis.     

Dietary ecology of extant guanaco (Lama guanicoe) from Southern Patagonia: seasonal leaf browsing and its archaeological implications

The analysis of dietary traits of ungulates through tooth microwear and mesowear has been applied to archaeological sites to investigate seasonal changes in settlements by hunter–gatherers. In this paper we propose to test the hypothesis that tooth microwear (combined to mesowear) is able to indicate seasonality in the diet of extant ungulates in arid habitats (semi-deserts or steppe). The material analyzed comes from six faunal monospecific assemblages of guanaco (Lama guanicoe) resulting from a mass mortality event in winter 2000 near the Cardiel Lake in Southern Patagonia (Province of Santa Cruz, Argentina). Mesowear results indicate that the guanacos from the Cardiel Lake area are mixed feeders, and thus, have a diet that shifts seasonally. Moreover, microwear analysis supports the hypothesis that tooth microwear is able to indicate seasonality in the diet of extant guanaco in arid habitats. The pattern is clear for the winter sample and needs to be confirmed for a summer sample. Consequently, tooth microwear is proposed as a new potential proxy for detecting seasonal occupation in archaeological sites in Patagonia and other arid environments.     

Osteometric Analysis of South American Sea Lions (Otaria flavescens) Pups From Patagonia. An Assessment of Their Use as Indicators for Seasonality in Archaeological Sites

Zooarchaeological analyses of pinniped remains have been scarce in South America because of lack of specific studies of species determination and estimation of age and sex. Nonetheless, the presence of small and unfused bones (assigned as pup remains) of Otaria flavescens (O. flavescens) in the Patagonian archaeological record has been frequently used as an indicator of summer occupation accomplished by ecological analogues. For this reason, we carried out a postcranial skeletons osteometric study of modern pups of South American sea lions (O. flavescens) with known sex and aged 0–12 months, allowing a more precise age estimation of archaeological samples. Then, we revisited the evidence for seasonality in the Cabo Virgenes 6 site at Cabo Virgenes locality, one of the archaeological localities in Patagonia where the seasonality has been determined only on the basis of the presence of unfused pup bones. Our metric data study on a modern sample shows that the regression analyses generated a complementary and dependable age estimation model for unfused appendicular bones of O. flavescens between 0 and 12 months old that can be applied to samples recovered from archaeological sites. These osteometric studies of postcranial elements allow us to adjust the age estimation of the animal's death and re‐examine seasonality of the Cabo Virgenes 6 site (Santa Cruz, Argentina). Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seasonality and age structure in an archaeological assemblage of Sika deer (Cervus nippon)

Sika deer (Cervus nippon) was one of the major terrestrial mammals hunted in Japan throughout the Jomon period, which extends from the end of the Palaeolithic until the arrival of rice agriculture in the first millennium bc . Mandibular analysis of hunted deer is believed to be more useful in determining the season of death than antlers in archaeological contexts. This paper aims to present a new method of estimating an occupational season of a Jomon site by using sika deer mandibles. This method consists of two stages. First, two measurements on a mandible should be taken. If the distribution shows any gaps among young juveniles, this strongly suggests that the sika was hunted in a specific season. Second, tooth eruption and attrition stage should be observed; this may suggest the season in which hunting took place. This method was utilized to analyse sika deer remains from Awashimadai in eastern Kanto. The result of the analysis shows that deer were hunted only from spring to summer at Awashimadai. Putting these results together with the estimate of seasonality deduced from other species strongly suggests that the site was occupied only from April to July. This paper also examines how the tooth attrition stages of sika deer progress. The preliminary comparison with red deer (Cervus elaphus) in England suggests that molar wear progresses more quickly in sika than in red deer. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Absolute age and tooth eruption and wear sequences in sheep and goat: determining age-at-death in zooarchaeology using a modern control sample

This paper seeks to improve our understanding of the relationship between mandibular tooth eruption and wear sequences and absolute age in modern sheep and goat. While the relationship between tooth eruption and wear and absolute age has been investigated for primitive breeds in parts of the Old World, our pilot study extends the applicability of this research to modern breeds and to another geographic region (North America). A modern control sample of two species of domestic caprines – Ovis aries (sheep) and Capra hircus (goats) from Manitoba, Canada – are used to evaluate the two major systems for analyzing mandibular tooth wear and eruption (Payne and Grant) and for assigning an absolute age-at-death. In order to compare the two systems, an absolute age for Grant's Mandibular Wear Stages was established for the first time, previously demonstrated only for Payne's system. The analysis confirmed that there is a very high correlation between the known age and estimated age based on tooth eruption and wear. However, Payne's system generated far coarser age-at-death profiles, which lowers its utility in constructing harvest profiles. Grant's system is recommended for ageing be utilized since it can yield more sensitive age estimations. In conclusion, it is possible to utilize the modern caprine breeds to establish the relationship between tooth eruption and wear and absolute age to reconstruct age and season of death of archaeological samples.     

Pig exploitation in the southern Kanto region,Japan

This study investigates changes in past human and animal relationships by focusing on pig (Sus scrofa) remains excavated from archaeological sites in southern Kanto, Japan. Pigs and humans have had a close relationship since prehistoric times and the process of change in this relationship, including possible domestication, is one of the major issues in Japanese zooarchaeology. This study attempts to gain a better understanding of the nature of past interaction between humans and pigs by investigating their relative importance compared with other vertebrate remains, kill‐off patterns, and changes in their size and shape at these sites. The materials used for this study date from the Earliest to Final Jomon (ca. 10,000–2500 BP), Yayoi (ca. 2500–1700 BP) and Kofun (ca. 1700–1300 BP) periods. The relative proportions of pigs were calculated to show the overall trend of pig exploitation in each site. Age at death was obtained based on the state of tooth eruption. Bucco‐lingual crown measurements were taken on the third and fourth premolars and on each cusp of the first and second molars of the mandible, and the logarithmic ratio technique was then applied to these data. The age structure of Sus varies between different sites in the Jomon Period, and significant changes were observed in the Yayoi and Kofun Periods. A decrease in the relative proportion of pigs in the faunal assemblages was observed from Jomon to Kofun. Three major differences were observed in the size of pigs. The overall size of pigs significantly increased from Early to Middle Jomon, whilst a decrease in size occurred in the Yayoi Period. Finally, overall size increased significantly during the Kofun Period. Together with the archaeological evidence—such as the ritual burial of pigs accompanying human burial—we suggest that the interaction between pigs and humans became gradually stronger at some sites during the Late Jomon Period, and the relationship intensified in the Yayoi Period. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ascertaining an agent: using tooth pit data to determine the carnivore/s responsible for predation in cases of suspected big cat kills in an upland area of Britain

The identification of the involvement of a particular carnivore in the modification of bone assemblages concerns a number of fields of research including archaeological and palaeontological enquiry. Taphonomy provides a methodology by which bone assemblages can be analysed and interpreted and this is more often undertaken with archaeological or palaeontological assemblages. A taphonomic analysis is undertaken here in order to determine the perpetrator of predation attacks on domestic stock from a modern-day setting. Recently reported techniques using tooth marks preserved on bone surfaces made by known carnivores are successful at determining some class sizes of predators and are used here to determine the perpetrator(s). Although a class size of carnivore is readily identified by this methodology, a particular carnivore taxon is not. Tooth morphology and dental configuration are reported here as better criteria for identifying a particular taphonomic agent. Tooth pit dimensions are used here to identify the class size of carnivores involved, and tooth morphology and cusp spacing to suggest a medium sized felid and fox as taphonomic agents. The identification of the medium-sized felid may support observations and reports of alleged “big” cat kills in the area. The study has important implications for the interpretation of fossil sites where felids may have been involved in the modification of animal carcasses but are archaeologically invisible in terms of their fossil remains.     

New Statistical Approaches to Intra‐individual Isotopic Analysis and Modelling of Birth Seasonality in Studies of Herd Animals

This paper introduces improved methods for statistically assessing birth seasonality and intra‐annual variation in δ¹⁸O from faunal tooth enamel. The first method estimates input parameters for use with a previously developed parametric approach by C. Tornero et al. The second method uses a non‐parametric clustering procedure to group individuals with similar time‐series data and estimate birth seasonality. This method was successful in analysing data from a modern sample with known season of birth, as well as two heterogeneous archaeological data sets. Modelling indicates that the non‐parametric approach estimates birth seasonality more successfully than the parametric method when less of the tooth row is preserved. The new approach offers a high level of statistical rigour and flexibility in dealing with the time‐series data produced through intra‐individual sampling in isotopic analysis.     

Taphonomy,life history,and human exploitation of Rhinoceros sinensis at the Middle Pleistocene site of Panxian Dadong,Guizhou, China

Rhinoceros remains are commonly found in Chinese Pleistocene archaeological localities. This study examines the characteristics of the Rhinoceros sinensis sample from Panxian Dadong, a karst cave in the mountains of western Guizhou province, with a mammalian fauna in association with stone artefacts and human remains from the late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6‐8). The distribution of skeletal elements shows a predominance of foot (metapodial and phalanges) and lower limb (carpals and tarsals) bones, while the dental age‐at‐death profile, constructed using dental eruption and tooth wear data, is characterised by a high frequency of prime age adult teeth. There is little taphonomic evidence for the involvement of non‐human carnivores or natural agencies in the formation of the faunal assemblage. Instead, it appears that human activities were responsible for the unexpected prevalence of prime age adults. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bison breeding characteristics and interpretation of archaeological seasonality revisited

Bison breeding behaviour has been used for the last three decades as the basis for developing methods for assigning season‐of‐occupation estimates to archaeological sites on the North American Plains. These methods are based upon the supposition that the North American bison breeding season is extremely short and that genetically controlled ontological characteristics such as foetal growth and tooth eruption sequences can therefore be used to infer site seasonality in a reasonably straightforward and precise manner. This paper reviews bison population studies conducted during the past 30 years to reassess present understandings of the length of North American bison breeding seasons. It is concluded that the bison breeding season regularly extends over a period of three to four months, and that initiation of ontological development will therefore also vary over the same period of time. Bison development characteristics cannot provide a reliable or precise means of assigning seasonality to archaeological sites on the North American Plains. It is suggested that methods using physical characteristics such as dental cementum incrementation which are directly affected by seasonal changes could be more productive. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Testing the ‘Laacher See hypothesis’: tephra as dental abrasive

In a series of recent studies, changes in material culture and settlement pattern in the Late Glacial of Northern Europe have been linked to the eruption of the Laacher See volcano. This eruption occurred c. 13,000 years ago towards the end of the Allerød chronozone. It is argued that the tephra fall-out from this eruption set in motion significant demographic fluctuations along the northern periphery of Late Glacial human settlement and that these led to a number of material culture transformations. In particular, the emergence of the regionally distinct techno-complexes with large tanged points – the Bromme culture in southern Scandinavia and the Perstunian culture in northeastern Europe – and the temporary abandonment of central European regions are thought to relate to this eruption. While numerous archaeological datasets are in accord with this ‘Laacher See hypothesis’, the forcing mechanism or mechanisms that brought about these archaeologically visible changes have remained largely unexplored. A particular challenge is to explain how some of the culture-historical effects of the Laacher See eruption seem to change or become more pronounced with distance from the eruptive centre. We here investigate one potential middle-range link between the Laacher See eruption and Late Glacial fauna and foragers: tephra as dental abrasive. We use instrumented nanoindentation to quantitatively investigate tephra from a number of sites covering the medial and distal fall-out zones as well as the dental enamel of Homo sapiens and key prey species of Late Glacial foragers. Our results show that the Laacher See tephra contained particles roughly twice as hard as even the hardest portions of any of the teeth investigated. We also suggest that fluoride-induced weakening of dental enamel may have further aggravated tooth wear. These mechanisms may have acted in concert to produce elevated levels of, in particular, animal mortality, which in turn may have led to an abandonment of the affected landscapes.     

Size and shape of the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa), with a view to the reconstruction of its Holocene history

Abstract

A large assortment of skulls and skeletons of recent wild boar (Sus scrofa) from across the world has been used to collect tooth and bone measurements that can be compared to those from archaeological specimens. The data provide useful information for a reconstruction of the Holocene history of the species. The evidence collected so far highlights the great variability of the species and provides a baseline to be used for the interpretation of ancient material. It is shown that not only the size, but also the shape of teeth and mandibles can help in highlighting patterns of variability in wild boar from different areas. A number of geographic trends are identified in the variation of S. scrofa across its range, mainly concerning the differentiation of insular forms, and the existence of South–North and West–East clines. Other factors such as hybridisation with domestic stock, feralisation and human-induced movement of animals may also play an important role. A comparison with ancient material emphasises the existence of similarities as well as differences between modern and ancient populations. Although some of the geographic trends identified on the basis of the analysis of modern material seem to date back to early Holocene times, the morphological history of the species appears to be complex, and in more than one area fluctuations in body size seem to have occurred.     

Identifying the Involvement of Multiple Carnivore Taxa with Archaeological Bone Assemblages

Information on the number of carnivore taxa that were involved with archaeological bone assemblages is pertinent to questions of site formation, hominid and carnivore competition for carcasses and the sequence of hominid and carnivore activity at sites. A majority of early archaeological bone assemblages bear evidence that both hominids and carnivores removed flesh and/or marrow from the bones. Whether flesh specialists (felids) or bone-crunchers (hyaenas), or both, fed upon the carcasses is crucial for deciphering the timing of hominid involvement with the assemblages. Here we present an initial attempt to differentiate the tooth mark signature inflicted on bones by a single carnivore species versus multiple carnivore taxa. Quantitative data on carnivore tooth pits, those resembling a tooth crown or a cusp, are presented for two characteristics: the area of the marks in millimetres, and the shape as determined by the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis of the mark. Tooth pits from bones modified by extant East African carnivores and latex impressions of tooth pits from extinct carnivore species are compared to those in the FLK Zinjanthropus bone assemblage. Data on tooth mark shape indicate greater variability in theZinj sample than is exhibited by any individual extant or extinct carnivore species in the comparative sample. Data on tooth mark area demonstrate that bone density is related to the size of marks. Taken together, these data support the inference that felids defleshed bones in the Zinj assemblage and that hyaenas had final access to any grease or tissues that remained.     

Describing Archaeological Iguana Laurenti, 1768 (Squamata: Iguanidae) Populations: Size and Skeletal Maturity

The goal of this study was to provide tools to estimate size and maturity of the archaeological Iguana specimens on the basis of their skeletal remains. To achieve this, a reference of 40 Iguana osteological specimens from different collections was used to derive size prediction equations relying on bone measurements. The sequence of fusions of skeletal elements was also observed and found to be strictly identical in all observed specimens. These observations enable the size and skeletal maturity of an archaeological specimen to be determined on the basis of an isolated bone. Such data could be valuable in zooarchaeological studies, as is demonstrated using the case of a pre‐Columbian archaeological site in the Lesser Antilles. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Morphometric Analysis of the Yellow Clam (Amarilladesma Mactroides) to Interpret Fragmentary Archaeological Specimens

Mollusks were an important component in the diet of the hunter-gatherer groups that inhabited the coastal zones of South America during the Holocene, as recorded in the littoral shell and archaeological sites distributed from Brazil to Argentina. Although the shells are relatively resistant to physical and chemical agents, they are also fragile and various post-depositional processes affect their integrity. Puente de Fierro is an archaeological site located in the south of Buenos Aires province (Argentina), in which remains of the yellow clam (Amarilladesma mactroides) were recovered totally fragmented. We investigate if a morphometric model based on modern clams could be applied to estimate shell size and individual biomass of archaeological clams. Linear regression models reveal a high correlation between the chondrophore length and the shell length, and therefore, the individual biomass of the yellow clam.     

Morphometric Analysis of Camelid Remains from the Alero Deodoro Roca (ADR) Site (Córdoba,Argentina). An Attempt to Characterise Body‐Size Variability in Sierras Pampeanas Australes Region

This paper focuses in the morphometric analyses of Lama guanicoe remains recovered from the hunter–gatherer archaeological site Alero Deodoro Roca, located at Sierras Pampeanas Australes region (Córdoba Argentina), an area that has little information on the body‐size variability of these artiodactyls. Because of the sparse osteometric data in the region, we focused on determining inter‐intraspecific differentiation of wild camelids through corroborated osteometric techniques and multivariate statistical analyses of proximal phalanges. Our results showed a clear interspecific differentiation between modern vicuñas and archaeological specimens. We could also distinguish at least three guanaco size groups (small, medium and large) with the archaeological remains from the late Holocene (3000–3600 bp ) of the site, presenting medium‐size characteristics. Finally this paper aims at establishing a first approach in the characterisation of guanaco body size in the mountainous region of Córdoba. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Feasting at Poverty Point with Poverty Point Objects

ABSTRACT

Attempts to account for the impressive and unusual archaeological record of the World Heritage site of Poverty Point have often faltered. The vast and diverse set of artifacts, the spectacular and well-designed earthworks, and the millions of baked-clay objects known as Poverty Point Objects are all distinctive and anomalous features of the site. This paper argues that the archaeological record of Poverty Point can best be explained as the product of periodic, ritualized feasting events. Drawing on diverse archaeological and anthropological studies of feasting I demonstrate that it is a useful research framework for understanding the site’s content because many of the archaeological signatures of feasting are present at Poverty Point. I argue furthermore that Poverty Point Objects were an integral component of this culture of feasting and offer hypotheses on their role in the feasts.