近百年来宋代中枢秘书制度研究的回顾与反思

一中枢秘书是指中央起草文书诏令的官员 ,在宋代 ,中枢秘书机构不是冠以“秘书”之名的图籍、书史机构“秘书省” ,而主要是翰林学士院、元丰改制前中书门下所辖的舍人院和元丰改制后的中书后省 ;中枢秘书官主要是翰林学士院中的翰林学士、承旨、直院、直学士和舍人院 (中书后省 )的中书舍人、直舍人院等 ,以及元丰改制前加有“知制诰”头衔的诸官 ,合称为“两制” ,翰林学士院官员起草内制 ,知制诰、舍人院官员起草外制。中枢秘书制度则包括两制官的组织编制、选任标准、奖惩方式、俸禄规定、入值制度、草制程序、文书流程等一系列相关制度…     

论清季学堂奖励出身制

科举制是古代中国之抡才制度,而新式学堂体制则是近代育才制度,两者在性质及功能上存在很大差异。清季科举制废除前后实行的学堂奖励出身制,将传统科举制之抡才制度与近代学堂之育才制度简单地作了错位嫁接。它实际上是传统的“学而优则仕”观念之延续,滋生并助长了“以学干禄”风气,强化了“官学一体化”格局,故受到有识之士的猛烈抨击。本文在考察清季学堂奖励出身之制度设计与具体实施情况的基础上,分析科举与学堂在性质及功能上的差异,揭示“学堂与仕进混合”、“抡才与育才并一”之制度设计的内在冲突,进而说明从传统科名奖励制经过学堂奖励出身制之过渡,而转向现代学术奖励制度的复杂性与必然性。     

从幕府到职官:清季外官制改革中的幕职分科治事

清代原直省总督、巡抚衙门不置属官,司道衙署职官数量甚少,幕府成为事实上的体制外机构。咸同以后,随社会变化与政务增多,文案处与科房数量增加,众多局处所的不断衍生与扩充,分别从督抚衙门内外伸展行政权力,影响中央财政,原有体制弊端更为突出。清季新政的外官制改革,以借用唐宋幕职为形式,通过分科治事体现了近代科层制精神,将体制内外机构整合改造,使幕友成为职官,并设会议厅议政决策,其建置反映了清季内外官制改革的成果,在行省机构从传统官制向近代行政体制过渡中迈出了关键的一步。     

种瓜得豆：清季外官改制的舆论及方案选择

清季官制改革启动前,程序和步骤均有不同方案,选择结果对改革进程不无影响。当朝执政未能统筹全局,却照搬外国经验,从而内外官改制难以协调,督抚的双重身份又成为官制改革的症结及矛盾焦点。因改制权力频受削弱的督抚,设法图存扩张,先是多方表达自己的不满和诉求,继而利用立宪派和民众的请愿,公开向清廷施加压力。直至辛亥前夕,外官改制的最终方案仍未确定,由此引发的权与利的争斗,加速了清王朝垮台。所遗留的省级行政权力及其长官身份地位问题,成为民初割据纷争要因,且依然困扰着后来行政体制的规划者与建设者。     

由脱序到整合:清末外省财政机构的变动

清季外省财政机构通过裁局改制,经历了由纷乱无序到财权相对统一的重要转变。裁局改制前期注重节流主义,后期相对重视制度改变。光绪末年的财政改制主要是督抚司道的自发调整,宣统年间则是来自清廷“裁局改制”谕旨和度支部的督催。外省督抚虽遵照谕令实施变革,但却力图控制财政实权。度支部统一财政、强化各省藩司实权的愿望受到督抚的表面应付,实难如愿达到目的。由于机构整合过程中受到各种制度和人事影响,通过改制设立的省财政机构明显存在新旧杂糅的特征,在分科办事、职员构成和运行习惯上,未能与旧传统彻底区分。清廷和各省在财政机构的改制上,尚存在着“能力”与“努力”的各种约束,改制结果并不纯粹是积极的。     

辛亥革命时期的省制纠结

辛亥各省光复政权乃至民初政府的省制,多在清末外官改制和各省独立自治的基础上加以变通,共和制下如何确定中央与地方的关系,省制成为关键。民初朝野舆论相持最久、困扰最多的省制方案与争论,不宜单从民主与专制较量的角度立论,还应考虑时人对国家统一的向往与对分裂的隐忧。中国历史文化中,分合与治乱兴衰紧密联系。省制模式中集权与分权、官治与自治的平衡取舍,既与民主、专制相关联,也与统一或分裂的抉择相始终。由于以省为地方自治层级范围过大,东西方各国无此先例,单一制与联邦制均不适合,民初省制因此成为本土国情与域外制度纠结甚深的焦点。这一难解的症结,或许仍将对中国的政治体制改革产生深远影响。     

试论晚唐五代的客将、客司与客省

唐后期五代 ,中央和地方都有接待四方来使的礼仪机构和官员。在中央是客省和客省使 ,在地方则是客司与客将。中央的客省和客省使主要负责藩镇派至朝廷的人事往来 ;而客司和客将赞导藩镇礼仪 ,接待朝廷及他镇来使 ,其职一同于中央的客省和客省使。敦煌书仪和传世史料中相关书函的出现 ,表明了以上职司在礼仪方面的特殊作用。本文将通过对两者职能的分析比较 ,来论证唐后期五代藩镇体制下中央和地方在礼仪职司方面的对等与互接作用     

清季财政改制研究疏论

清季财政改制是中国近代制度转型的重要一环,其运作过程涉及清季政治派分、区域财政利益、趋新与守旧观念等多重因子,折射出制度变迁并非单纯遵循所谓的近代化趋向。研治此段历史,应抱具"整体历史"意识,打破学科藩篱,关注人与制度之间彼此牵制的纷繁乱象,抛开今人习见观念,深入时境,作纵深切入,当日制度变迁中的不新不旧、童牛角马之实态方可得以展示,各类嬗变面相亦可近真呈现。     

从文献资料看近代云南的毒品与反毒品斗争

近代以来,云南一直是鸦片泛滥的重灾区。据史料记载,清季道光年间,云南“广种罂粟,熬烟者日多,贩烟者日繁,吸烟者遂日众,是此等浇风,惟该省为甚”。①人民国后,由于政府在鸦片问题上时禁时弛,导致鸦片始终未能根绝。二十世纪八十年代以来,云南已成为毒品与反毒品斗争的前沿阵地。     

中国博物馆公共性的本土话语与治理实践

中国博物馆的演变深受国家治理体制影响,并映射了中国本土公私观念与思维结构。中国博物馆的“公共性”表达,一方面体现为中国传统“公家、公门”意义的持续在场,政府主导下的各类公立博物馆是民国以来博物馆的主体类型;另一方面体现为规范性、伦理性的“公”发挥了重要作用,现代民族国家视域下,“国家-国民”的公理观成为民国以来博物馆的价值合法性来源。中华人民共和国成立后,博物馆单位体制与“人民观”的确立与发展,进一步固化了侧重国家主体意义、国有领域性的“公”与侧重“国-民”关系、规范性、伦理性的“公”相互嵌套和相互制约的结构性关系。这种结构关系构建了中国博物馆公共性的主要特征。     

Heeding the warnings: Deng Huaxi and Zheng Guanying’s Shengshi weiyan

ABSTRACT

This article establishes a link between Qing-dynasty official Deng Huaxi (1826–1916) and comprador Zheng Guanying’s (1842–1922) political treatise Shengshi weiyan (Warnings to a Prosperous Age). It suggests that Deng Huaxi’s reforms as provincial governor of Anhui and Guizhou were inspired by Shengshi weiyan. The work did not come to be applied in the 1898 Hundred Days Reform but saw at least partial success in the modernization of the two landlocked provinces. This interpretation supports the scholarly consensus that the geographical extent of the late Qing self-strengthening reforms was contingent on various persons and places and being far more focused on coastal provinces. It also suggests that the nature, pace, and scope of reforms lay at the discretion of governors-general and provincial governors, many of whom possessed few resources with which to implement them fully. The story of Deng Huaxi challenges a common idea about late Qing China: that meaningful reforms relied only on men with deep political connections to the central court and access to private fortunes. It also shows how effectively messages by Zheng Guanying and other theorists could reach local administrators and leaders and how, in provinces not so dominated by conservative literati elites, Western-style reforms garnered much appeal without too much resistance.     

我国地方税制的历史沿革与发展探析

地方税制是国家税收制度的组成部分 ,国家进行税制调整常引起地方税制的变化 ,税制调整又与财政体制的变化相关联。由于地方税制是以中央与地方分财权为前提 ,因此确立什么样的中央与地方的财政分配关系直接决定着地方税制是否存在 ,以及地方税制的存在形式。财政体制发生变化 ,地方税制必然随之变化 ,税制调整和财政体制调整往往是交织在一起的。文章在回顾与总结我国税收制度发展和改革历程的基础上 ,探讨了地方税制产生和发展以及运行的一般规律 ,并对进一步完善地方税体系 ,使地方税收活动规范化、民主化、科学化提出了设想     

Local government reforms in Georgia and their impact on state-society relations

Abstract

This paper studies how the local governance reforms carried out between 1997–2014 shape state-society relations at Georgia’s local level. Drawing on Foucault’s concept of governmentality, I analyze how the reforms shape practices and actors at the local level. Research interviews with state officials at the national and subnational levels and citizens of the Georgian district Marneuli highlight both government rationalities and how people react to them. I argue that the reforms, which have been declared to promote participation and accountability, hardly contribute to bridging the huge gap between state and society, particularly with respect to the case of the Azeri minority in Marneuli. Thus far, the newly introduced formal actors at the local level, the municipalities, lack power. Societal action in absence of the state and interaction with the state via informal networks remains dominant. The study contributes to literature on state-building and transformation in Georgia by shedding light on the often-neglected local level and to the debate on external democracy promotion and policy transfer by empirically studying the effect of a policy transfer.     

Governors,Provincial Administration,and Local Self-Government in Late Imperial Russia

After long neglect in the Soviet period, the study of Russia's provincial governors and local institutions of self-government is attracting new interest among contemporary historians, who struggle with questions that preoccupied their late imperial predecessors.     

Regulating Over-indebtedness: Local State Power in Cambodia's Microfinance Market

Cambodian microfinance borrowers are suffering from an over-indebtedness crisis. In the past 20 years, the Cambodian government has implemented financial reforms that have commercialized the microfinance sector and promoted industry self-regulation. Echoing long-standing concerns about neoliberal microfinance, critics maintain that these reforms have hollowed out the Cambodian state's ability to regulate a highly competitive market, thereby exacerbating the problem of over-indebtedness. In contrast, based upon 20 months of ethnographic research in southern Cambodia by the author, this article argues that the microfinance market would not function without local authorities performing key regulatory roles of the state. These local authorities include commune councillors — elected representatives of multiple villages — who work closely with village leaders and local police. They are the primary state actors who enforce the property rights and loan contracts upon which Cambodia's microfinance market depends. The author analyses how this local state regulation contributes to household indebtedness by encouraging multiple borrowing, rural out-migration and land repossession. The article advances development studies scholarship on over-indebtedness by demonstrating that the inequitable outcomes of neoliberal microfinance can be better understood, and contested, by interrogating the multi-scalar spaces of state regulatory power.     

从八旗驻防到地方行政制度——以清代盛京八旗驻防制度的嬗变为中心

清代承平日久,驻防盛京的旗人逐渐卷入当地的社会生活,由客居变为土著。旗人社会的变化,使以军事防御为主的八旗驻防制度发生了重大变革。本文通过对清代盛京八旗驻防制度的考察,认为驻防旗官从行政、司法、经济诸领域渗入地方社会的管理,八旗驻防的地方政府不断完善,与民官一起,成为区域社会的重要管理者。盛京将军辖区的"城"已成为驻防区约定俗成的政区,拥有治所、幅员、边界、行政组织等,驻防制度逐渐演变为带有八旗制度特征的地方行政制度。     

Elites in Local Development in the Philippines

For many Philippine provinces, decentralization and more autonomous local development planning did not lead to the desired outcomes. This article examines the experiences of the two provinces of Cebu and Leyte. While Cebu became a centre of trade and industry, Leyte is still struggling with its local economy oriented to natural resources. A main reason for the divergent development paths of the two islands can be found in the emergence of different elite structures, which resulted in different path‐dependent patterns of economic specialization. Despite this different historical experience, both provinces today suffer from similar institutional infirmities in their planning system for promoting local development. Local planning capacity constraints, such as regional and local co‐ordination and co‐operation patterns, local finances, human capital and knowledge are analysed. The Cebuano elites used the room for manoeuvre provided by decentralization reforms more successfully than elites in Leyte. This created pockets of efficiency in Cebu leading to more development‐friendly investment policies. In order to increase local and regional planning capacity, short‐term interventions and policy reforms at the local, regional and national level are discussed.     

政府空间治理与地方产业发展响应——以重庆市电子信息产业为例

政府空间治理对地方发展具有深刻影响。西方学界在解释国家治理时有三个重要学说:非马克思主义理论、马克思主义理论和福柯学说,但并不能完全解释我国的政府治理结构。中国治理结构包含中央政府和地方政府等多个层次,各层次的行为能力和权力空间有所不同。改革开放以来,中央政府允许地方政府通过调节财税杠杆、土地、劳动力等要素进行地方治理模式创新。同时,地方政府积极争取成为由中央政府批准的特殊经济区,对本地制度环境进行改革和创新,以促进地方产业发展。本文以重庆市为例,结合6次深入调研,探讨政府如何通过财税、土地等多项改革,提升空间治理能力,创造差异化治理环境,以带动地方产业发展的积极响应。     

Local autonomies and economic development in Italy's incomplete transition

Since the 1990s Italy's autonomous local governing bodies have experienced important changes in their powers and functions in ways that have been shaped by national and international developments. The two decades of Italy's ‘transition’ have seen structural changes in the system that enabled the country in the second half of the twentieth century to take a place at the centre of the world economic system. But the evidence of the last two decades indicates that the changes that have taken place do not constitute a transition, but reveal instead a country that in terms of its politics and the economy is living an extremely diversified and complex phase of its history. This essay explores these processes at the level of the provinces and local government, showing how their capacity to contribute, locally and nationally, to growth through increasing territorial competiveness has been hampered by uncertainties resulting from the reforms that have been introduced and by growing financial restrictions.