A New Megalithic Dolmen from the Balearic Island of Mallorca: Its Radiocarbon Dating amd Artefacts

This paper examines and discusses a 'dolmenic' structure recently discovered on the Spanish Balearic Island of Mallorca. This form of megalithic tomb architecture is the least studied of the many different types of local prehistoric monuments. Only seven dolmens are known in the Balearics (Mallorca and Menorca) and the Pityoussa Group (Ibiza and Formenterra) and only two of these have radiocarbon dating, circa 1750 cal BC to 1550 cal BC. The new structure, the Dolmen of Son Oleza, according to recent findings is the oldest example so far dated. A recent series of nine radiocarbon dates and two earlier analyses cover a period of circa 2200 cal BC to circa 1800 cal BC. The Olezian Dolmen is also the first to have yielded abundant Bell Beaker pottery and associated artefacts. It also reveals geological and architectural characteristics that are unlike other local dolmens, characteristics that by dating and artefact evidence identify it as a possible Balearic prototype. Furthermore, the Olezian Dolmen's location close to the Chalcolithic Old Settlement of Son Oleza, where identical dates and artefacts have been found, strongly suggests this settlement's contemporaneity and direct association with the Dolmen. This aspect, along with the other emerging evidence, is completely new to the question of Balearic dolmens, giving us fresh insight as to their chronology, function and socio-religious importance and significance.     

Megalithic Quarrying Techniques and Limestone Technology in Eastern Spain

Abstract

Evidence in Eastern Spain and in the Balearic Islands indicates that during the building period of the megaliths and thereafter the inhabitants of this region developed a considerable limestone technology. This technology embraced an empirical knowledge of carbonate chemistry and karst geology which enabled them to quarry large limestone blocks to gain a maximum of usable material with a minimum of effort. It appears that one of the quarrying methods used was based on the chemical dissociation by fire of standing stone blocks at their attachment points, a technique hitherto unknown or unreported in the literature. Throughout the interval of megalith occupation there is evidence of the exploitation of limestone for a wide variety of purposes, including the making of objects such as containers, querns, and funereal vessels. Ultimately, their experiments led to a unique burial practice in which the dead were cremated by means of quicklime.

The quarrying methods used by the Iberian megalith builders are described below. Most of the specifics of their methods will be drawn from one well studied site, Son Carla on the island of Menorca, but similar quarries have been identified at numerous sites in the Balearic Islands and at Sisante in La Mancha on the mainland.     

The First Mallorcans: Prehistoric Colonization in the Western Mediterranean

The paper aims to elucidate the first human colonization of the western Mediterranean island of Mallorca by answering such questions as: What was the cultural identity of the first archaeologically identifiable human settlers? What was the chronology of colonization? Where did the colonizers originate? And what were their contacts during the initial phase of settlement? It is based on recently acquired chronological data and on a review of the classical sources. A precise chronology for the first colonization event is proposed, supporting the idea that human settlement on Mallorca started within the period 2350–2150 cal BC. The coast of Languedoc, between the rivers Vidourle and Rhône, is the most probable source region. Whether the first settlers were derived from an Early Bronze Age or a Late Copper Age mainland culture remains unresolved. A rapid initial population growth following initial colonization is proposed. The available evidence points to the development of an essentially isolated population on Mallorca, developing an autochthonous culture with only limited contacts to mainland regions.     

From the Aegean to the Adriatic: Exploring the Earliest Neolithic Island Fauna

Frameworks for understanding Neolithization have increasingly recognized the complex and multifaceted nature of the spread of domesticates from Southwest Asia into Europe. But how do these factors interplay in unique island settings as compared to the continental scale? This article takes a comparative approach using sites located on islands from the Aegean and the Adriatic to discuss subsistence in the earliest Neolithic, between approximately 7000 and 6000 cal BC. Based on zooarchaeological evidence, I explore differences between island and mainland use of terrestrial and marine fauna, and consider the role of island size, vegetation, and access to water resources. Located along a “crossroads” and presenting distinct environmental challenges, the islands of both the Aegean and the Adriatic are ideally situated for considering human ecodynamics at this pivotal transition from hunting and gathering to farming and herding.     

Prehistoric animal use on the Great Hungarian Plain: A synthesis of isotope and residue analyses from the Neolithic and Copper Age

The archaeological record of Eastern Hungary indicates that settlement patterns, subsistence strategies, ceramic style, trade patterns and mortuary customs changed from the Late Neolithic to the Copper Age (5000–2700 cal BC). Despite a rich archaeological tradition, questions remain regarding the management and use of domesticated animals and the role animal husbandry played in social change during this transition. Some researchers have hypothesized that these changes reflect a shift towards an economy that intensified its focus on primary and perhaps secondary animal products. Here we synthesize isotope data from human and animal remains and residue analysis from pottery sherds from Neolithic and Copper Age assemblages. Results indicate that the consumption and use of animal protein and fat was relatively high for both periods, with an increase in animal fats in ceramic vessels during the Middle Copper Age; however, milk products do not appear to have played an important dietary role. We conclude that livestock management remained small-scale during the Neolithic and Copper Age and that dairy use was minimal. It is proposed that the cultural changes that occurred at this time were associated with the emergence of smaller, independent farmsteads and perhaps the innovative use of secondary products like manure.     

Compositional Analyses of Mortars from the Late Antique Site of Son Peretó (Mallorca,Balearic Islands,Spain): Archaeological Implications

The paper presents the mineralogical, petrographic and chemical analyses of mortars from an Early Christian complex found in Mallorca (Balearic Islands) and dated to between the fifth and the eighth centuries ad . We characterized several mortars found at the site, in order to gather information on the raw materials used, as well as on the technology of production, and similarities among the samples. The analyses were aimed at solving specific archaeological questions regarding the building phases of the site and, in particular, the synchronic or diachronic presence of two baptismal basins in the same Christian complex.     

The definition and duration of the Beaker Culture in the Spanish Balearic Islands: a radiocarbon survey

This paper presents 45 radiocarbon dates demonstrating International Bell Beaker cultural contact and interaction with the Island of Mallorca, c. 2500 cal BC to 1300 cal BC. The radiocarbon documentation is accompanied by supporting artefactual and architectural evidence that demonstrates long-range seaborne exchange and a high degree of social complexity outside the Iberian Peninsula. The evidence has been collected over a thirty-four year period (1962–1996) from a number of sites which include cave, rock shelter, open-air settlement and ritual contexts. These demonstrate social, religious and economic activities which show an unusually rich variation and complexity, giving indications of social differentiation and local technological skills, such as water- and animal-management, architectural construction, as well as lithic, ceramic, metallurgical and other production, over some twelve hundred years.     

Seasonality and season of birth in early Eneolithic sheep from Cheia (Romania): methodological advances and implications for animal economy

Cheia (early 5th millennium cal BC) is a prehistoric village in the Dobrodgea province in Romania. Its occupation is attributed to the Early Eneolithic period or Hamangia III phase. The exploitation of animal resources is heavily dominated by husbandry. Although cattle are dominant, they were complemented by caprines, mainly sheep, exploited for tender meat (as highlighted by a 6–12 months age class peak in the mortality profile). Sheep reproduction patterns were investigated through stable isotope analyses in order to characterize the annual rhythms of slaughtering for tender meat acquisition while informing a more general picture on sheep demographical management and animal husbandry at the settlement. Results from δ¹⁸O analysis on second and third molar enamel were modeled and compared with modern reference populations. Sheep births took place over less than four months, from late winter to early summer. From this it could be concluded that tender meat could be provided most of the year, excepted over short period in early summer. Finally, comparison of datasets obtained on the M2 and M3 suggests that the M2 presents a more accurate representation of birth seasonality due to lower inter-individual variability in the chronology of tooth growth.     

Late Holocene Human Expansion into Near and Remote Oceania: A Bayesian Model of the Chronologies of the Mariana Islands and Bismarck Archipelago

Since the investigations of Spoehr in the 1950s, most researchers have accepted a date of ～3500 BP/1500 BC for the initial human settlement of the Mariana Islands in the western Pacific. The relationship of this early expansion beyond Island Southeast Asia, characterized by Lapita-like pottery, to the appearance of Lapita in Near Oceania, generally was either given little thought or largely ignored. The Lapita settlement of Near Oceania is almost universally regarded as the initial expansion of Austronesian speakers into the Pacific, followed a few centuries later by a rapid migration to the east into Remote Oceania. More recently, however, radiocarbon evidence from several sites suggests that initial late Holocene expansion into the Pacific occurred in the Mariana Islands. This hypothesis needs critical evaluation. To this end, we created site- and region-level Bayesian calibration models. Results estimate that initial Lapita occupation of the Mussau Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago occurred between 3535 and 3234 cal BP (95% probability), which is 50–385 years (95% probability) earlier than the initial settlement of the Mariana Islands, dated to 3230–3085 cal BP (95% probability). Additionally, settlement of the Mariana Islands was either coeval or later (?66 to 254 years [95% probability]) than Lapita expansion out of Mussau into the greater Bismarck archipelago between 3397 and 3115 cal BP (95% probability). Radiocarbon datasets from these regions are hampered by problematic samples, and we anticipate that additional reliable radiocarbon dates will refine these estimates.     

Vegetation history at the multi-period prehistoric complex at Ballynahatty,Co. Down,Northern Ireland

Palaeoecological methods can provide an environmental context for archaeological sites, enabling the nature of past human activity to be explored from an indirect but alternative perspective. Through a palynological study of a small fen peatland located within the catchment of a multi-period prehistoric complex at Ballynahatty, Co. Down, Northern Ireland, we reconstruct the vegetation history of the area during the early prehistoric period. The pollen record reveals tentative evidence for Mesolithic activity in the area at 6410–6220 cal BC, with woodland disturbance identified during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transitional period ca. 4430–3890 cal BC. A more significant impact on the landscape is observed in the Early Neolithic from 3950 to 3700 cal BC, with an opening up of the forest and the establishment of a mixed agricultural economy. This activity precedes and continues to be evident through the Mid-Neolithic during which megalithic tombs and related burial sites were constructed at Ballynahatty. Due to chronological uncertainties and a possible hiatus in peat accumulation in the fen, the contemporary environment of the Ballynahatty timber circle complex (constructed and used ca. 3080–2490 cal BC) and henge (dating to the third millennium cal BC) cannot certainly be established. Nevertheless, the pollen record suggests that the landscape remained open through to the Bronze Age, implying a long continuity of human activity in the area. These findings support the idea that the Ballynahatty prehistoric complex was the product of a gradual and repeated restructuring of the ritual and ceremonial landscape whose significance continued to be recognised throughout the early prehistoric period.     

DIGGING PITS AND MAKING PLACES AT UĞURLU DURING THE SIXTH MILLENNIUM BC

The site of U?urlu on the island of Gökçeada (Imbros) is the earliest known Neolithic settlement within the Aegean Islands (c.6800–4500 cal. BC). In total, 37 pits, associated with a rich variety of artefacts as well as human and animal bones were excavated in the Late Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic levels of the site (c.5900–4500 BC). The pits belonging to the early sixth millennium BC levels of U?urlu were small and located within the houses that seem to have gone through multiple episodes of house destruction and renovation rituals. During the late sixth millennium BC, this area became the focus of extensive pit‐digging activity, when large pits involving rich variety of artefacts were set within the courtyard of a special building (Building 4). Among the pits, a collective human burial pit (P188) incorporating the remains of 11 individuals and another pit (P52) involving a partial human skeleton were also found. From a comparative point of view, the construction techniques of these pits, their spatio‐temporal relations as well as their associated archaeological artefacts resemble the Anatolian and Near Eastern Neolithic practices of house destruction and renovation cycles, which are activities related to the ancestor cults of the region. We argue that all of these practices reflect public events during which social relations were negotiated through the agency of place. The differences observed during the sixth millennium BC at U?urlu reflect the changing concepts of place and society in the immediate aftermath of the Neolithic Process, when interactions with the Balkans as well as the Aegean intensified in this region.     

An Isotopic Perspective on Animal Husbandry at the Xinzhai Site During the Initial Stage of the Legendary Xia Dynasty (2070–1600 BC)

Located in the Central Plains of China, the early Xia Dynasty site of Xinzhai (2050 BC–1750 BC) with large archaeological features and exquisite artifacts of jade and copper is pivotal for probing the origin and formation of Chinese civilisation. Here, stable isotope ratios analysis, supplemented by zooarchaeological results, was used to investigate the exploitation and management of animals utilised by humans. It was demonstrated that a diverse pattern of animal raising and exploitation was present at the Xinzhai site. The domestic pigs were fed with substantial amounts of millets or their byproducts to guarantee a food source for the dietary demands of the humans. Dogs were also found to have consumed large amounts of C₄ protein sources, likely in the form of human food scraps or leftovers. The domestic herbivores, sheep and cattle, showed different dietary characteristics in that the former mainly grazed in the natural environment, while the latter species were fed with large amounts of C₄ products. This intra‐species variation was somewhat related to their physiological characteristics but seems to have been more determined by their different status in social and ritual activities. Thus, this research at Xinzhai provides a glimpse of the organisation of animal resources during the initial formation of Chinese civilisation. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The North Dvina river delta development over the Holocene: Geochronology and palaeoenvironment

In this paper, a detailed overview of the Holocene evolution of the North Dvina river (ND) delta (southern White Sea) is presented; it is based on radiocarbon dating, geomorphological and other field surveys, and plant macrofossil and palynological data. We have identified three main stages of the delta evolution: estuary erosional (Allerød — 5700 cal BC), lagoon or tidal-marsh (5700 cal BC — 3700 cal BC) and fan-delta accumulative (3700 cal BC — present). These stages are correlated with local climatic curves, sea level changes, glacioisostatic raise curve and Baltic Sea stages. A variety of landforms has been identified and dated within the delta. These results help to explain the spatial and temporal patterns in the prehistoric human occupation of this area.     

The Holocene fluvial history of the Tremithos river (south central Cyprus) and its linkage to archaeological records

This study aims to reconstruct the Holocene fluvial history of the Tremithos river, south central Cyprus and examine linkages to regional and local archaeological records. Three stratigraphic profiles (Sp1, Sp2 and Sp3) located in the lower valley have been investigated using sedimentology and magnetic parameters. The ¹⁴C dating of 10 samples reveals mid-Holocene ages for Sp1 and Sp2, while the upper most part of Sp3 can be attributed to the early to mid-Holocene. Two main phases of vertical accretion have been recognised: the first, recorded in the lower most part of Sp3, could not be dated but might relate to the late Glacial period. It is not associated with any archaeological artefacts. The second, recorded in all profiles, dating from ca. 5000 to ca. cal 2800 BC, spans the Late Neolithic Sotira (cal 4800/4000 BC) and Late Chalcolithic (cal 2900–2500 BC) cultures. The sediments of Sp1 and Sp2 are up to 8–10 m thick and mainly composed of fine material. However, an intercalated phase of coarse sediment has been identified at the beginning of the third millennium BC, indicating a sudden change in river dynamics, potentially associated with the 5.2 ka rapid climate change regional event. Typical mid-Chalcolithic (ca. cal 3300–3050 BC) ceramics found in a palaeosol in Sp2 indicate for the first time human occupation of the Tremithos river terraces. Two other palaeosols have also been recognised in Sp3 and radiocarbon dated to ca. cal 5600–4100 BC and ca. cal 2900–2600 BC, respectively. These results make it possible to propose a palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Holocene evolution in the Tremithos valley and to make a preliminary assessment of the relative roles of tectonics, climate and anthropogenic forcing.     

Hesitant hunters: a review of the introduction of agriculture in western Norway

Abstract

Evidence for the introduction of agriculture in western Norway is presented, using three categories of data: (1) palaeobotanical data, including pollen diagrams from lakes, bogs and archaeological sites, focusing on the presence of cereals, Plantago lanceolata L. and anthropogenic pollen indicators, and charred macro remains of cereals from archaeological sites; (2) osteological data, focusing on the occurrences of bones of cattle, sheep and goats in three rock-shelters, and the bone material from one open-air Neolithic site; (3) archaeological data, including artefacts indicating agricultural practices, distribution of residential settlement sites, and stray finds. The evidence for agricultural activity at the beginning of the fourth millennium BC (Early Neolithic, EN) is low, whereas the presence of both cereals and animal husbandry is indicated in the palaeobotanical material from the Middle Neolithic A (MNA, 3400–2600 cal. BC). The earliest record of domesticated animal bones is dated to the Middle Neolithic B (MNB, 2600–2200 cal. BC), while palynological and archaeological data also indicate an expansion in the area cultivated by early farmers. All data confirm the establishment of an agrarian society and animal husbandry in the Late Neolithic (LN, 2200–1700 cal. BC). It is concluded that agriculture was introduced into western Norway by the indigenous hunter-fisher populations. During this process, social and ideological factors played principal roles.     

MISPLACED MONUMENTS?: A REVIEW OF CEREMONY AND MONUMENTALITY IN FIRST MILLENNIUM CAL BC CORNWALL

Both large‐ and small‐scale ceremonial monuments are a well‐known feature of the third and second millennia cal BC. However, from the middle of the second millennium cal BC the character of the evidence changes, firstly with the appearance of widespread settlement remains, and then in the earlier first millennium cal BC with the appearance of hillforts. This paper considers the evidence from a number of newly discovered enclosures in Cornwall, which, given their similarity to much older ceremonial monument forms, have unexpectedly been found to date from the first millennium cal BC. The implications of these discoveries are discussed as well as the evidence for possible Atlantic Connections across the Irish Sea.     

Understanding residues of oil production: chemical analyses of floors in traditional mills

Oil production is an important aspect of ancient Mediterranean economy; therefore, archaeological studies on oil-producing installations using archaeometry and in particular the chemical analysis of absorbed residues is valuable in identifying the substances actually produced and to understand the spatial distribution of the activities carried out at oil mills.Modern contexts may provide a good reference for interpreting the archaeological chemical traces.This study examines the chemical traces in three abandoned oil mills in the Mediterranean: Polveraia (Tuscany, Italy), Martina Franca (Puglia, Italy) and Binibassi (Mallorca, Balearic Islands). To identify the residues released by the production of oil and absorbed by the floors, samples were taken from the floors of these installations and analysed using spot tests aimed at identifying the presence of fatty acids and phosphates. Some of the samples were analysed also with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The results of the analyses were plotted in the Geographic Information System (GIS) platform and interpolated with Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) to determine the spatial distribution of the residues. Overall, the results show a large presence of fats in the analysed floors in all of the installations.     

Reviews

Book reviewed in this article:
Review article: Underwater archaeology in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands: La Nave Romano-republicana de la Colonia de Sant Jordi . D. CERDIÁ JUAN
L'Épave Sant Jordi 1 (Majorque). D. COLLS
El Barco de El Sec (Costa de Calviá, Mallorca). Estudio de los materiales. A. ARRIBAS, M. G. TRIAS, D. CERDÁ and J. DE HOZ
Excavacions Arqueològiques Subaquàtiques a Cala Culip, I. J. NIETO PRIETO and eight co-authors
Die wirkliche Reise des Odysseus. ARMIN and HANS-HELMUT WOLF
West Coast Shipping (History in Camera 4). M.K. STAMMERS
East Coast Shipping (History in Camera 1). H. A. C. HEDGES
Those Vulgar Tubes. External Sanitary Accommodations Aboard European Ships of the Fifteenth through Seventeenth Centuries. Studies in Nautical Archaeology, No. 1. JOE J. SIMMONS III
Organic Contents of Ancient Vases; Materials Analysis and Archaeological Investigation. MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology, Vol. 7 (1990). W. R. BIERS and P. E. McGOVERN (Eds)     

Impulses of agro-pastoralism in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC on the south-western coastal rim of Norway

Abstract

A review of the available archaeological and palaeoecological evidence from the coastal heathlands of south-western Norway was compiled to reveal the processes of neolithisation proceeding from the Early Neolithic towards the generally accepted breakthrough in the Late Neolithic, 2500/2350 cal. BC. South-western Norway then became part of the Scandinavian, and thus the European, agricultural complex. Three phases of forest clearance are recorded — from 4000–3600 cal. BC, 2500–2200 cal. BC and 1900–1400 cal. BC. Deforestation was intentional and followed a regional pattern linked to the geology and topography of the land. In the first period (4000–2500 cal. BC), forage from broad-leaved trees was important, while cereal cultivation was scarcely recorded. Agro-Neolithic (here referring to agriculturally-related Neolithic) artefacts and eco-facts belonging to the Funnel Beaker and Battle Axe culture are rare, but pervasive. They must primarily be considered to be status indicators with a ritual function; the hunter-gatherer economy still dominated. The breakthrough in agro-pastoral production in the Late Neolithic was complex and the result of interactions between several variables, i.e. a) deforestation resulting from agriculture being practised for nearly 1500 years b) experience with small-scale agriculture through generations and c) intensified exchange systems with other South Scandinavian regions. From 2500/2350 cal. BC onwards, two distinct environmental courses are noticeable in all pollen diagrams from the study area, indicating expansion in pastoralism, either towards heath or towards grassland and permanent fields.