Weapon injuries in the 12th century Crusader garrison of Vadum Iacob Castle,Galilee

This project analyses the wounds sustained by those defending the Crusader castle of Vadum Iacob, which is to the north of the Sea of Galilee in Israel. To our knowledge this is the first Crusader castle garrison to be excavated and studied, and consequently gives unique information concerning medieval battle wounds. The Muslim forces of Saladin stormed the castle in August 1179. The skeletal remains of five of the garrison who were killed during the siege and the execution which followed have been studied, providing a vivid portrait of what it must have been like in the last hours as the castle surrendered. Multiple sword and arrow wounds were noted, and arrowheads were still in situ at the time of their deaths. All the soldiers appear to have been stripped of their armour and then dumped together with corpses of horses that died in the battle. We explore the nature and anatomical location of the wounds in the context of medieval Islamic weapons, battlefield tactics and the defensive armour of the Crusaders. Despite the limited number of soldiers discovered, the unique nature of this site makes the findings of great significance. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Crusader Diet in Times of War and Peace: Arsur (Israel) as a Case Study

This paper puts forward an archaeozoological analysis of two sizeable animal bone assemblages from the thirteenth‐century Crusader town of Arsur (Israel). Each represents a distinct behavioural practice, one of meat eaten in peaceful times and the other of meat consumed under stressful conditions while preparing for and undergoing a siege, when consideration was given to factors of benefits and space. Our results show that the faunal remains from before and during the Mamluk siege enunciate differences of subsistence and identity at the site at two different times and under diverse conditions.     

Desiccated plant macrofossils from the medieval castle of Marmorera,Switzerland, with a note on the identification of leaves of Cyperaceae

Abstract

During restoration work at the medieval castle of Marmorera, Graubünden canton, Switzerland, numerous desiccated plant remains were found — in a rock crevice that was protected from precipitation by a massive rock shelter. The identification of the remains showed that the majority could not have grown at the castle, but must have been transported to the site. Many of the plants came from warmer climates and were imported from lower lying regions, indicating the position of the castle at an important transalpine route. Among the finds was a lump of grass-like leaves for which for a method of preparation and identification was developed. The leaves turned out to be of Carex species that grow in wet habitats which were probably used as litter or as bedding material.     

A short history of Mulabbis (Petah Tikva,Israel)

The following article summarizes our current knowledge of the history of Tell Mulabbis (in modern Petah Tikva). As a key archaeological site in the Yarkon River basin, it was inhabited during the Roman, Byzantine, Early Islamic, Crusader, Mamluk and Late Ottoman periods. Based on the published results of recent excavations, older scholarship, and hereto-unnoticed written evidence, the article examines and interprets Mulabbis's material culture within the broader contexts of the region's historical geography. Although possessing important advantages like access to water and arable land, the site was inhabited only intermittently due to malaria and changing economic and political circumstances. Within the framework of Ottoman Archaeology, the article suggests the need to pay closer attention to ‘recent’ archaeological layers. For example, the few Ottoman material remains published so far, testify to continued cultural exchange and economic ties between Mulabbis, the mountainous interior, and the southern parts of Palestine.     

Cargoes of Iron Semi‐Products Recovered from Shipwrecks off the Carmel Coast,Israel

Underwater surveys along the Israeli Carmel coast have revealed six cargoes of iron semi‐products associated with shipwrecks. They are described and dated according to the associated artefacts. Metallographic and chemical analyses on samples from the biggest cargo have determined the stages of the chaîne opératoire, identified the properties of the iron and characterized the iron trade along the Israeli coast. The new discoveries contribute to our understanding of the circulation of iron in the South Levant, which was characterized by an almost complete absence of local iron production. During the Byzantine and Crusader periods, this absence was compensated by long‐distance sea trade, depending on political circumstances and restrictions. Three main types of iron semi‐products were identified: (a) partly consolidated blooms, (b) short pointed bars and (c) elongated pointed bars. The cargoes discovered represent a time period of nearly a millennium. Altogether, 148 iron semi‐products were studied. Of these, 166 were from cargo a, which was dated by coins to around 1130–1200 ce . Those coins could have been imported from Europe for Crusader military and civil uses in the Levant. The iron from cargoes b, d and f, dated perhaps to the Byzantine period, could have been imported from Anatolia or Venice for military and civil purposes.     

An assessment of the magnetic response of an iron‐smelting site*

The magnetic response derived from an iron‐smelting site was investigated by comparing magnetometry and magnetic susceptibility geophysical survey data and laboratory analyses of the magnetic characteristics of the furnace and slags. Magnetic analysis and microscopy (optical and SEM) of samples from the furnace lining and the slag deposits demonstrated the heterogeneity in the magnetic, morphological and mineral compositions of both materials. The comparison of the magnetic characteristics of the material with the geophysical survey data illustrated the importance of using both magnetometry and magnetic susceptibility survey techniques to maximize the information from an iron‐smelting site. The furnace was dated archaeomagnetically to the 14th century ad . The results demonstrate that the magnetic analysis of iron‐smelting sites is highly valuable, both to characterize sites and to improve the understanding of early iron‐working technology.     

TRACING THE RESOURCES OF IRON WORKING AT ANCIENT SAGALASSOS (SOUTH‐WEST TURKEY): A COMBINED LEAD AND STRONTIUM ISOTOPE STUDY ON IRON ARTEFACTS AND ORES*

Lead and strontium isotope analyses were performed by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) on Roman to Byzantine iron artefacts and iron ores from the territory of ancient Sagalassos (south‐west Turkey), to evaluate Pb and Sr isotopes for provenance determination of ores for local iron production. It can be demonstrated that for early Roman artefacts and hematite iron ore processed in early Roman times from Sagalassos proper, as well as for magnetite placer sands and early Byzantine raw iron from the territory of the city, Sr isotopes are much less ambiguous than Pb isotopes in providing clearly coherent signatures for ore and related iron objects. Late Roman iron objects were produced from iron ores that as yet remain unidentified. Early Byzantine iron artefacts display more scatter in both their Pb and Sr isotope signatures, indicating that many different ore sources may have been used. Our study demonstrates that iron objects can be precisely analysed for their Sr isotopic composition, which, compared to Pb isotopes, appears to be a much more powerful tool for distinguishing between chronological groups and determining the provenance of raw materials.     

GLAZED CERAMIC MANUFACTURING IN SOUTHERN TUSCANY (ITALY): EVIDENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONTINUITY THROUGHOUT THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (10TH–14TH CENTURIES)*

Archaeometric investigation allowed the characterization of two important classes of ceramics: ‘vetrina sparsa’ and ‘invetriata grezza’. Their archaeological peculiarity makes them particularly suited for tracing the evolution of glaze manufacturing in southern Tuscany throughout the medieval period (10th–14th centuries). These ceramics were found in different sites of historical importance, and also from a mining perspective. Local copper, lead, zinc and iron mineralizations supported the growth of several settlements in the vicinity of the mines. The many castles and different archaeological finds (ceramics, glazed ceramic, slag etc.) attest to the intense mineral exploitation of the area from at least the first millennium bc up to the modern period. In light of these geological and archaeological characteristics, archaeometric investigation was intended to provide insight into ancient technical knowledge of ceramic glazing and to determine the source area for raw materials in the medieval period (10th–14th centuries). Ceramic bodies were analysed through OM, XRDp, SEM–EDS and XRF, while coatings were investigated through SEM–EDS. Mineralogical, petrographic and chemical analyses revealed slightly different preparation and firing processes for the two classes of ceramics. These data suggest the continuity through the centuries of the ‘vetrina sparsa’ and ‘invetriata grezza’ production technology. The mineralogical phases, such as monazite, xenotime, zircon, barite, Ti oxide, ilmenite, titanite, tourmaline and ilvaite, and the lithic (intrusive and volcanic) fragments detected within the ceramic bodies suggest a source area in the vicinity of the Campiglia mining district. Lastly, the presence of Cu–Zn–Pb (Ag) and Fe sulphide mineralizations (materials used to produce glaze) in the area supports the hypothesis of local manufacture.     

THE BYZANTINE CHURCH OF THE NUTRITION IN NAZARETH REDISCOVERED

Abstract

Although Nazareth has usually been seen by scholars as a relatively minor Byzantine pilgrimage centre, it contained perhaps the most important ‘lost’ Byzantine church in the Holy Land, the Church of the Nutrition – according to De Locis Sanctis built over the house where it was believed that Jesus Christ had been a child. This article, part of a series of final interim reports of the PEF-funded ‘Nazareth Archaeological Project’, presents evidence that this church has been discovered at the present Sisters of Nazareth convent in central Nazareth. The scale of the church and its surrounding structures suggests that Nazareth was a much larger, and more important, centre for Byzantine-period pilgrimage than previously supposed. The church was used in the Crusader period, after a phase of desertion, prior to destruction by fire, probably in the 13th century.     

Morphological reconstruction of Roman <Emphasis Type="Italic">styli</Emphasis> from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Iulia Concordia</Emphasis>—Italy

Iulia Concordia is an important Roman settlement known for the production of iron objects and weapons during the Roman Empire. A huge number of well-preserved styli were found in the bed of the main channel of the city. In order to shed light on the production processes used by Roman for stylus manufacturing and the conservation state of the finds, a neutron tomography analysis was performed on NEUTRA beamline in Switzerland. SEM-EDS analyses were performed on few selected objects in order to identify the composition of metal decorations. Here, we present results from our investigation conducted on 91 styli, disclosing, in a non-invasive way, the morphological characterization related to the ancient Roman working techniques.     

Experimental use and quantitative performance analysis of triangular flakes (Levallois points) used as arrowheads

The invention and widespread use of projectile weaponry is a characteristic presumed to exist only with Homo sapiens. However, as finds of wooden material during the early development of projectile weapons are extremely rare, this remains a contentious topic. Recent work has proposed a series of ballistically-significant morphological characteristics of stone points that yield information about their potential use. Here we report on initial experimental approaches to quantifying the performance of relatively simple stone points as arrow armatures. Two experimental trials were performed using a series of 51 Levallois points. The first, against a uniform density target, was designed to give an overall indication of performance. The second, against a simulated animal carcass, demonstrated the durability of these points. The results of this study suggest that small Levallois points could have functioned as arrowheads, albeit ones likely to break after limited use. They also suggest that these points’ penetrating power is strongly controlled by their morphometric characteristics, most notably their perimeter. This latter finding refines a method for assessing hypothetical Paleolithic stone points on the basis of tip cross-sectional area previously proposed by others.     

Comparative microstructural and elemental analysis of iron artefacts from Kaveri valley archaeological sites

Iron has been one of the most critical technotraditions that had lasting impact on social formation throughout the Iron Age and historical period. Iron was used in warfare and subsistence economy. Our knowledge on ancient iron smelting and working have generally been derived from ethnography and ethnohistory, which is by all means, time, region, and raw material specific. Scientific analyses of ancient iron have contributed in understanding this heritage to a respectable extent, yet a comprehensive knowledge about the evolution of iron making through time and space in India eludes us. In this work, a comparative study of iron artefacts from two Iron Age/Megalithic-Early Historic sites of Tamil Nadu, south India, that is, Mangadu (burial site) and Ambal (habitation-cum-burial site) is carried out to understand the iron thermal-processing capabilities. The retrieved artefacts were examined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for elemental composition. The imaging of the artefacts was done using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD), and Optical Microscopy (OM). In addition, phase identification was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). Combination of these analyses illustrates that inhabitants of Mangadu and Ambal were aware of the iron alloy manufacturing/processing techniques such as forging and hammering.     

藤花落遗址出土石镞岩性的反射光谱图型分类研究

江苏连云港藤花落遗址出土了大量的石镞,多以泥板岩为主要的加工材料,其器型非常地多样化,可以看出当时的石镞工艺技术是有非常专业的生产体系。按其岩性的目测鉴定,全都是变质岩中的板岩,合计80件。透过反射光谱学反映石镞岩石总体的反射率大小以及光谱曲线斜率变化,用以辅助区分石镞的主要岩类,以达到分类的目的及定量统计分析。此次测试是藉由南京大学成矿作用国家重点实验室的Lambda900 UV/Vis/NIR光谱仪于密闭黑暗环境中所测试完成的。     

Copper quality and provenance in Middle Bronze Age I Byblos and Tell Arqa (Lebanon)

Forty-four Middle Bronze Age I weapons discovered at the sites of Byblos and Tell Arqa in Lebanon were investigated in order to study their copper quality and provenance. The evaluation of copper qualities is based on quantifying permanent inclusions such as copper sulfide and lead globules. The provenance of copper was studied using lead isotope analyses. For further discrimination between copper groups and sources elemental analyses by PIXE were performed on some of the weapons investigated. The results revealed two copper groups that could be qualified as “dirty” copper and “clean” copper. The former was used in most of the weapon types whereas the latter was reserved for items made of high-tin bronzes (>11 wt%) which underwent heavy hammering during the manufacturing process. Even though several potential copper sources were identified, the data point to Iran and Oman as the most probable areas of origin for the metal used in these weapons. These results contribute to the study of inter-regional exchange networks in the ancient Near East.     

THE PROVENANCE OF IRON ARTEFACTS FROM MANCHING: A MULTI‐TECHNIQUE APPROACH*

Iron finds from the Celtic oppidum of Manching in southern Bavaria (Germany) are analysed in view of their possible provenance. The exceptional size and the location of Manching are usually attributed to the presence of abundant iron ores in its vicinity. After a review of previous approaches for source determination of iron artefacts, we introduce lead isotope analysis as a new approach. However, only by combining the trace element patterns of slag inclusions and iron metal with lead isotope ratios in the metal is it possible to distinguish various iron ore formations near Manching. As a result, it turns out that, indeed, the most obvious ones—namely, bog ores near the Danube—constituted the main resources for iron production at Manching. It was even possible to select one occurrence as the most likely ore source.     

铜-铁复合兵器铁刃的分析

对上海博物馆馆藏新品王件春秋早期的铜一铁复合兵器中铁的类型、制成方法、机械性能和材料组织进行了分析,以判明铁刃的原料来源和制作工艺。结果表明：铁刃基体成分为较纯的铁,没有发现镍元素,铁刃组织呈层状分布,结构疏松,合较多夹杂物和孔洞,夹杂物由硅酸盐类复相组成,证实了三件铜一铁复合兵器的铁刃是由人工冶铁锻制而麻     

REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN BLOOMERY SMELTING SLAG OF THE IRON AGE AND ROMANO‐BRITISH PERIODS*

This study highlights regional variation in the composition of iron‐smelting slag produced in England prior to the medieval period and attempts to link slag composition to the type of ore smelted. For many sites, the slag compositions were consistent with the use of limonite ore, but there is evidence that siderite ore was smelted at sites in Sussex in the late Iron Age/Romano‐British periods. A compositional comparison of smelting slags and slag inclusions in Iron Age currency bars, using data from Hedges and Salter (1979 ), illustrates the potential of smelting slag compositional data in provenance studies of early iron objects.     

Edmund Spenser at Kilcolman Castle: the archaeological evidence

Abstract

As part of a broader study of the Elizabethan colonization of Munster, the home of a member of the colonial elite was the object of four seasons of fieldwork, 1993–96. Kilcolman Castle in north County Cork now comprises a ruined tower-house and some mounds of masonry overlooking Kilcolman Bog. The castle and 3,000 acres had been granted to the poet Edmund Spenser, who refurbished and occupied it from 1588 to 1598, when Tyrone's rebellion burned Kilcolman. Spenser's family fled, the poet soon dying in London, and the castle was finally abandoned after a second fire ante 1622. The excavations established that archaeological remains survived to a significant extent: the bawn (bailey) wall line was traced, structures identified as the Great Hall and Parlour were located, and artefacts and ecofacts from the occupancy of Spenser's family were recovered.     

AN ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSITIONAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODEL ARCHAEOLOGICAL GLASSES IN AN ACID BURIAL MATRIX

The degradation mechanisms of glass in a buried context result in surfaces that have been depleted in various elements. The stability of the glass is primarily affected by the burial environment and the glass composition. However, in all archaeological glasses, the corroded layer that is formed on the surface tends to be low in alkalis, high in silica and lacking in cohesion. The extent to which the material has degraded, along with the physical nature of the corrosion, has a profound effect upon a wide range of factors affecting the stability of artefacts, as well as the choice of conservation techniques to be employed. This study has a number of objectives: determination of the morphology of the surface of the leached layer in glasses of two different compositions with different surface finishes; examination of the transition between the corroded material and the unaffected substrate; and investigation of concentration profile of different elements within the surface layers, as a function of depth. The study uses two glasses, fabricated under laboratory conditions, to replicate two common glass types found in the historical environment; a soda–lime–silica glass typical of those found in the Roman period throughout the Mediterranean and northwestern Europe, and high‐lime–potash glasses typical of those of Western Europe in the late medieval period. Three different surfaces have been prepared to mimic alternative manufacturing techniques such as blown, cast and ground surfaces for each composition. The glasses have been corroded under controlled laboratory conditions to replicate the buried environment. Imaging and chemical information is obtained using SEM–EDX and morphological information using IFM to produce 3‐D mapping from topographical surfaces.