Dental pathology and diet at Apollonia,a Greek colony on the Black Sea

Dental pathology has the potential to provide insight into the composition of the diet and to reveal dietary differences based on age, sex and social status. Human skeletal remains from the Greek colonial site of Apollonia (5^th to 2^nd centuries BC) on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria were analysed for various forms of dental pathology in order to: assess the prevalence of dental disease in the population; compare the dental pathology data from Apollonia with dietary data derived from ancient literary texts and from previous stable isotopic analysis of the colonists' remains; explore variations in dental disease with respect to age and sex; and compare the prevalence of dental pathology in the Apollonians with that of other Greek populations. The composition of the diet, as indicated by the dental pathology data, is consistent with the stable isotopic evidence from Apollonia and with the ancient literary texts, both of which indicate the consumption of a relatively soft, high carbohydrate diet. The higher frequency of dental caries, abscesses, calculus, and antemortem tooth loss in older adults compared with younger ones reflects the age‐progressive nature of these conditions. The lack of significant sex differences in caries, abscesses, calculus and tooth loss corresponds with the stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data derived from bone collagen, which indicate no significant sex differences in the consumption of dietary protein. In contrast, these findings conflict with the ancient literary texts, which refer to distinct dietary differences between males and females, and with the stable carbon isotopic values derived from bone carbonate, which indicate sex differences with respect to the overall diet. Despite the lack of marked sex differences in dental pathology, overall trends point to subtle dietary differences between males and females. A greater degree of tooth wear in males also hints at possible sex differences in the use of the teeth as tools. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Patterns of dental wear in the early Maori dentition

The levels of tooth wear were surveyed in 50 pre‐contact Maori skulls (23 of them female) from New Zealand. In addition to a generalized tooth wear index, we evaluated occlusal wear for erosion and abrasion. Occlusal microwear was also investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images and, finally, the occlusal slope was determined at the level of the first molar teeth. The general pattern of wear was one of severe occlusal reduction with no significant differences between males and females. Both silicone impressions and SEM views confirmed a large component (30%) of erosion. While most individuals had flat wear planes, 33% of males and 44% of females showed reversed Monson's curves. Accentuated Monson's curves were found in 23.8% of males. While these results confirm early studies of the excessive wear experienced by pre‐contact Maori, our study shows for the first time that erosion played a significant role in the dental wear of these people. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using General Estimating Equations to Analyze Oral Health in the Moche Valley of Perú

This study introduces a new method for analyzing oral health indicators and thus reconstructing diet. To this end, we examined the dental remains of 173 individuals recovered from the site of Cerro Oreja in the Moche Valley of Perú, who lived during the Salinar (400–1 BC) or Gallinazo (AD 1–200) phases. The infectious and degenerative conditions analyzed include: dental caries, dental wear, dental abscess, antemortem tooth loss and dental calculus, all of which have been used to track dietary and thus subsistence‐related economic and sociopolitical changes. Data were analyzed using generalized estimating equations, an extension of generalized linear models. Significant changes in the frequency of occurrence of most dental conditions suggest that during the period of study, there was an increase in the consumption of agricultural products. However, these changes in oral health did not equally affect females and males. By the end of the Gallinazo phase, significant sex differences developed, with females more often affected by dental caries and males displaying greater mean molar wear scores. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dental health at the transition from the Late Antique to the early Medieval period on Croatia's eastern Adriatic coast

Dento‐alveolar pathologies: caries, ante mortem tooth loss, abscesses, calculus, alveolar resorption and tooth wear were analysed in two composite skeletal series from Croatia's eastern Adriatic coast (Dalmatia). The first consists of 103 skeletons from seven Late Antique (3rd–6th century AD) sites, the second of 151 skeletons from three Early Medieval (7th–11th centuries AD) sites. As recent bioarhaeological studies (Šlaus, 2008 ) showed a significant increase of disease loads and trauma frequencies in Dalmatia during the Early Medieval period, the aim of this study was to investigate whether dental health was equally adversely affected by the Late Antique/Early Medieval transition. The results of our analyses show that the frequencies of carious lesions, ante mortem tooth loss, abscesses and alveolar resorption increased significantly during the Early Medieval period, as did the degree of heavy occlusal wear on posterior teeth. These data suggest a change in alimentary habits, with a significantly higher dependence on carbohydrates and a greater reliance on hard, fibrous foods requiring vigorous mastication in the Early Medieval diet. The combination of higher calculus and lower caries rates in the Late Antique series similarly suggests more protein in the Late Antique diet and is, therefore, also consistent with the hypothesised change in alimentary habits. In general (the two exceptions are male caries and female alveolar resorption frequencies) lesion frequencies increased uniformly in both sexes suggesting that the deterioration of dental health during the Early Medieval period equally affected males and females. Cumulatively, the collected data suggest that the political, social, economic and religious changes that characterised the Late Antique/Early Medieval transition in Dalmatia resulted in a clear discontinuity, not only from the cultural, but also from the biological point of view with an evident deterioration of oral health during the Early Medieval period. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The frequency and distribution of dental caries and tooth wear in a Byzantine population of Sa'ad,Jordan

The aim of this study was to determine the frequency, distribution and extent of dental caries and tooth wear in a Byzantine population in Sa'ad, to compare these with modern Jordanians, and to draw inferences about their lifestyle. Dental caries and tooth wear were examined in 1159 permanent teeth using direct vision and dental explorer. The location and extent of the lesions were recorded and evaluated according to defined criteria. The overall caries prevalence was 16.8% (n = 1159). Most of the carious lesions (13. 9%, n = 1159) were present in the tooth crown, on occlusal or proximal surfaces; 2.9% of teeth displayed root caries alone. The upper and lower central incisors exhibited the lowest coronal caries frequency, while molars showed the highest frequency. Attrition with moderate dentine exposure was evident in most teeth. Some teeth (9.8%) demonstrated oblique abrasion and 9 (0.78%) teeth exhibited cupped occlusal surfaces. The prevalence of caries was within the range reported for other Byzantine populations and lower than that of modern Jordanians. The attrition seen in most teeth and the cupped occlusal surfaces might be due to eating abrasive food, drinking wine or acidic beverages. Oblique abrasion on the facial and palatal surfaces reflects their business or craft, such as basket making and leather processing. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tooth Wear Related to Marine Foraging,Agro‐Pastoralism and the Formative Transition on the Northern Chilean Coast

Occlusal surface wear scores were examined in a sample of 200 Formative period (1500 bc–ad 500) skeletons from the lower Azapa Valley in northwest Chile. Wear rate and plane (angle) were additionally evaluated using a subsample of paired first and second mandibular molars. The Formative period represents the transition from marine foraging to agro‐pastoral dependence in the region, and differences in oral pathology indicate that diet varied by site location (coast vs valley interior) but not by archaeological phase (early vs late). We predicted that occlusal wear would demonstrate similar patterns, resulting from differences in food consistency, and therefore hypothesised that in coastal groups consuming greater quantities of foraged foods, occlusal surfaces should wear faster and exhibit flat molar wear, whereas among valley interior groups consuming greater quantities of agro‐pastoral products, these should wear slower but exhibit more angled molar wear. Heavier posterior tooth wear was identified among coastal residents, but rate and angle of molar occlusal attrition did not differ significantly by location. Heavier overall wear and a steeper molar wear plane were identified during the early phase indicating that food consistency varied somewhat over the course of the Formative period. Overall, the results indicate that, although limited differences in tooth wear exist by site location, wear varied more over time likely reflecting a gradual transition from foraging to agro‐pastoral dependence in the lower Azapa Valley. Although oral health indicators point to differences in dietary investment by location, maintenance of a mixed subsistence economy likely sustained a comparative consistency of foodstuffs. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pulp Stones Prevalence in a Historical Sample from Radom,Poland (ad 1791–1811)

This paper provides an investigation of pulp stones in a sample drawn from the historical population of Radom, Poland, dating to between ad 1791 and 1811. This study seeks to determine the frequency of pulp stones, and assess the association between pulp stones and sex, age, dental caries, and dental wear. A total of 780 teeth from 121 adult individuals of both sexes (45 females, 76 males) were examined. Analysis was limited to molars. The average age‐at‐death of each individual was estimated. Total wear scores across the molars were calculated for each individual. Pulp stones were identified by a portable dental X‐ray machine. Pulp stones were found in 94 of 121 individuals and in 273 of 780 molars. No statistically significant correlation was found between pulp stones and age‐at‐death (p  = 0.7625) and sex (p  = 0.0915), but a significant relationship was found between pulp stones and dental wear (p  < 0.0001) and dental caries (p  = 0.0016). Our study found that molars affected by highly advanced dental wear were significantly more often accompanied by pulp stones than molars that had experienced limited wear. Similarly, significant correlations were observed for dental caries. It means that pulp stone formation appears to have been contingent upon the irritation of the tooth crown by factors such as forces acting on the tooth crown leading to dental wear or dental caries. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tooth wear in two ancient populations of the Khazar Kaganat region in the Ukraine

Tooth wear is a common phenomenon in archaeological material. It has been related to the abrasiveness of diet and to the tribological attrition of teeth of individuals. Numerous investigations have been carried out in north and middle American samples as well as African anthropological material. Not much is known about tooth wear in European cultures. Eleven skulls from Chervona Gusarovka, and 14 skulls from the Upper Saltov sites of the Khazar Kaganat region (8th–10th centuries AD) in eastern Ukraine, with different diets were examined. A total of 208 teeth were studied for tooth wear, caries prevalence and periodontal status. Abrasion grades were determined according to a standardised classification and statistically evaluated. Periodontal status was measured using the distance between the enamel‐cementum junction and alveolar crest and the gingival attachment level respectively. Tooth wear was significantly different (P < 0.01) between the two populations. A low caries prevalence of 4.2% in the Chervona Gusarovka population and 1.7% in the Upper Saltov population was found. Significantly more alveolar crest bone resorption on the lingual side was found in the premolars and anterior teeth of the Chervona Gusarovka population. No significant differences were found regarding gingival attachment levels and gingival recession. It is concluded that the content and mode of food preparation influenced tooth wear, as reflected by the prevalence of dental caries and periodontal diseases in these ancient populations. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

METALLURGY OF BRONZE USED IN TOOLS FROM MACHU PICCHU,PERU*

Although the tin‐bronze artisans’ tools found at Machu Picchu appear to have been cast to their final shape, examination of their microstructures shows that they were forged and annealed. As found, the tools were broken or cracked due to poor ductility of the bronze. Rolling and annealing of samples of bronze formulated with sulphur and iron additions to replicate the metal used at Machu Picchu show that the minimum amount of deformation needed to induce the observed recrystallization is a 12% reduction in thickness. The sulphur and iron impurities retard nucleation of new grains during annealing, but do not inhibit subsequent grain growth. Tensile tests show that while up to 10% porosity in cast bronze has no effect on hardness or initial strain‐hardening rate, it reduces the tensile strength and ductility enough to embrittle the metal. Hardness is an inadequate indicator of the strength properties of cast bronze intended for use in tools or weapons. The results show that when the metalsmiths at Machu Picchu started making bronze tools for use by stone and woodworkers, they had not mastered the art of making metal with adequate strength properties for this service. The forging and annealing procedure they used did not enhance the mechanical properties of their tools, and may reflect an inherited metallurgical tradition.     

Dental status of Napoleon's Great Army's (1812) mass burial of soldiers in Vilnius: childhood peculiarities and adult dietary habits

A mass grave of the soldiers of Napoleon's Great Army, containing no less than 3269 individuals who died during the retreat from Russia in December 1812, was uncovered during an archaeological rescue excavation in 2002 in Vilnius, Lithuania. General dental analysis, including that of dental wear, tooth loss, caries, calculus, and periodontal diseases and abscesses, was used to evaluate the oral health status and possible dietary patterns of individuals who represented recruits from almost all of Western and Central Europe. Growth conditions in childhood were studied by scoring of linear enamel hypoplasia. In all, 293 individuals (6528 teeth) were selected for the analysis; 20–30 year old males made up the majority of the sample. Their general dental status is characteristic of young individuals: low dental attrition and antemortem tooth loss, as well as low prevalence of calculus and abscesses. The caries rate was average compared with late Medieval/early industrial populations and typical for individuals with diverse diets. However, a considerable amount of pulp caries and a high number of carious teeth in some individuals indicate consumption of cariogenic products (e.g. sugar, sweet drinks) and poor oral hygiene. The frequency and severity of hypoplasia was lower compared with other populations of that time, suggesting the selection of the fittest individuals for military service; this correlates with the historically known selection criteria of that period. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Managing Change and Master Plans: Machu Picchu Between Conservation and Exploitation

Machu Picchu is among the world’s most controversial heritage sites. It represents a case where raising money through ticket sales and other activities, rather than an opportunity to fund site preservation, in fact constitutes a major threat to the survival of the site through overexploitation. Unesco has been very critical in recent decades about the management of Machu Picchu. International pressure resulted in the establishment of two master plans, in 1998 and in 2005. In this paper we investigate in depth the contents and rhetoric of the two plans, comparing changes in the two different versions, and linking the change in planning attitude to actual changes taking place in the site. This is also an opportunity to open a discussion on the interdisciplinarity of master plans in heritage sites.     

Periapical lesions and dental wear in the early Maori

Dental wear and intrabony lesions were evaluated in a sample of 225 skulls (136 male) of pre‐contact New Zealand Maoris. The degree and direction of surface wear was scored according to the method of Molnar ( Molnar 1971 . Human tooth wear, tooth function and cultural variability. American Journal of Physical Anthropology34: 175–190) and revealed severe surface loss in both males and females with horizontal wear being the dominant pattern (62.4% male, 57.5% female). The width of coronal tissue above the pulp chamber, as well as the maximum depth and width of periapical lesions, was measured from both standard radiographs and digital images. The high prevalence of periapical pathology in the Maori underlined the extreme nature of dental wear in these people. It is postulated that this degree of tooth loss may be attributable to a change in diet from large birds to marine‐dependence, the introduction of the kumara to New Zealand, dental erosion and finally, to the excessive masticatory forces exerted by a robust facial complex on normally sized teeth. Fenestrated lesions were highly prevalent (83% of skulls) and were centered mostly on the maxilla, with an even distribution among tooth classes. The finding of periapical lesions in teeth with minimal observable wear was attributed to traumatic occlusion. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

New insights into ancient environments using dental characters in Australian Cenozoic lungfish

Environmentally-related wear conditions and pathologies affecting the dentition of fossil lungfish from freshwater deposits in Australia have been analysed and compared with similar changes in the dentition of the living Australian lungfish, Neoceratodus forsten. Fossil populations from the Namba, Etadunna, Wipajiri and Katipiri formations in central Australia, and the Carl Creek Limestone and the Camfield beds in northern Australia were assessed.

Tooth plates from populations of living lungfish from the Brisbane River and Enoggera Reservoir in southeast Queensland were analysed for comparison. Tooth plates were measured to determine the numbers of different age groups in each population. They were assessed for abrasion, attrition, spur and step wear, erosion and caries, and for trauma and pathological conditions such as malocclusion, hyperplasia, abscesses, osteopenia and parasitic damage. AH of these conditions are related to the environment where the fish lived, are found in living members of the group, and can be compared directly with those of fossil relatives.

The results suggest that some of the fossil populations were at risk before climatic changes late in the Cainozoic destroyed their habitats. Some fossil lungfish populations, such as those of the Wipajiri Formation, exhibit active spawning and recruitment, good growth rates and a low incidence of disease and environmentally related damage to the tooth plates. Others, like those of the Katipiri and Namba Formations, include no young, and the adult fish were ageing and show environmentally-related damage to the dentition. Etadunna lungfish had active recruitment, but the tooth plates show a high incidence of attrition and caries. Riversleigh lungfish were actively spawning but did not grow large. Tooth plates from this latter deposit have a high incidence of pathological conditions. Fish from the Camfield Beds, where food was severely limiting, had little serious pathology but high levels of caries. Pathologies among living lungfish are common, but fossil fish were comparatively healthy, with few serious dental problems. Information from studies of fossil lungfish confirms that conservation of the few living species of lungfish depends on the maintenance of clean environments that provide adequate supplies of food and suitable sites for spawning and for the growth of young fish.     

Correlation between dental occlusal wear and approximal facet length

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between occlusal surface wear and approximal facet length in a North American archaeological sample of modern human hunter–gatherers (n = 111) and agriculturalists (n = 123). First maxillary molars (M¹) were selected. The approximal wear facet was measured on the mesial surface of each M¹ at the widest breadth using needle tipped digital callipers. Digital images were taken of the occlusal surface and wear was recorded as the percentage of dentine exposed to the total occlusal surface. Independent age estimate was based on age‐related changes, (pubic symphysis and auricular surface). Results show the hunter–gatherers had a significantly faster rate of wear on both tooth surfaces compared to the agriculturalists in each of the four age groups. Both lifeway groups showed a positive correlation between the two tooth surfaces during the early stages of tooth wear (less than 25% occlusal wear), where the percentage of occlusal wear and the length of the approximal facet increased at a similar rate. During the middle and final stages of tooth wear (occlusal wear greater than 35%) there was a strong negative correlation between the two surfaces in both groups. It is suggested this pattern is due to the shape and function of the M¹. Both correlations were more extreme in the hunter–gatherers than the agriculturalists. When the per cent of occlusal wear exceeded 35% the length of the approximal facet started to decrease, and it is therefore recommended studies that include approximal wear exclude molars with heavy occlusal wear. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Insights into immigration and social class at Machu Picchu,Peru based on oxygen,strontium, and lead isotopic analysis

The Inca Empire (AD 1438–1532) made common practice of relocating individuals, households and entire communities throughout their expansive realm for different reasons depending on subjects' assigned social class. Reconstructing patterns of immigration at Inca-period sites could therefore permit some estimation of the social class(es) among their constituents, and thereby provide insights into the functional dynamics of Inca political economy. However, this is a difficult endeavor using only archaeological lines of evidence. This study presents oxygen, strontium and lead isotopic results from the well-preserved, well-contextualized skeletal population (N = 74) from the Inca site of Machu Picchu, Peru. Isotopic data are used to reconstruct patterns of immigration at the site, which are in turn used to directly estimate the social class of the population. The resulting isotopic data are widely distributed with no apparent modality, matching the expected distribution of a particular class of nonelite retainers. A novel application of multivariate statistics coupled with geological and faunal isotopic reference data also permits tentative estimation of individuals' regions of origin. This study provides empirical and analytical frameworks for future research in reconstructing residential movement and class dynamics in the late prehistoric Andes.     

Dental disease in the Nile Valley during the New Kingdom

This study examines evidence for dental disease (caries, abscesses, antemortem tooth loss and severity of dental wear) in Nubian and Egyptian groups living in the Nile Valley during the New Kingdom. Specific attention is given to individuals buried at the site of Tombos, a cemetery in Nubia used during the Egyptian colonial occupation. In addition, three Nubian and two Egyptian samples are included for comparative purposes. While some similarities in condition frequencies between Tombos and the comparative groups are apparent, especially in the rates of caries and abscesses, significant differences in antemortem tooth loss and severity of tooth wear point to variation in these Nile Valley samples. These differences are especially evident for males. Higher rates of these conditions at Tombos may be attributed to the socio‐political and cultural changes taking place during this time of colonial occupation. Changes in foodways and occupational environments may have resulted in stress, as demonstrated by these dental conditions experienced by the Tombos people throughout this transitional period. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dental evolution in prehistoric Native Americans of the Ohio valley area. I. Wear and pathology

Temporal patterns of tooth wear rates (loss of crown height) and dental pathologies (caries, abscess, and tooth loss) are estimated for 40 Native American populations of the upper Ohio River valley area ranging in time from the Late Archaic (ca. 3500 years BP ) to Protohistoric times (ca. 350 years BP ). Within this time span three ‘dental cultural ecological environments’ are recognized: high rates of wear, low frequencies of pathology (Late Archaic), low rates of wear, low frequencies of pathologies (Woodland, ca. 2500–1000 years BP ), and low rates of wear and high frequencies of pathologies (Late Prehistoric, ca. post-1000 years BP ). Phenotypic selection acting to maintain tooth size is associated with pre-ceramic, hunter–fisher–gatherers in the first dental environment. The introduction and development of ceramics at the end of the Late Archaic is associated with significant reduction in tooth wear rates and reduction in size of maxillary teeth, most likely due to selection. From at least the Middle Woodland period (ca. 2000 years BP ) to the end of the time sequence considered, tooth size in Ohio Valley Native Americans was stable, with minor fluctuations due to genetic drift. At present there is no evidence that major changes in diet at the beginning of the Late Prehistoric period affected tooth size, even though the frequencies of dental pathologies increased dramatically. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fruits of Their Labour: Urbanisation,Orchard Crops,and Dental Health in Early Bronze Age Jordan

The analysis of dental remains, which outlast most other tissues in the human body, provides insight into past diet, activity patterns and ancestry. The remains from Bab edh‐Dhra' represent the only skeletal sample available to assess the impact of agricultural intensification in the Early Bronze Age of the southern Levant (ca. 3500–2000 bce ). This era ushered in a period of ‘urbanisation’, evidenced by fortified towns, planned roadways, developments in irrigation and growing population density. During this time, the cultivation, trade and consumption of orchard taxa (such as figs, grapes and olives) increased. This paper examines changes in the teeth associated with agricultural intensification involving orchard crops as well as grains. Dental caries, ante mortem tooth loss and dental wear are examined for Early Bronze IA (EBIA; 3500–3300 bce ) and Early Bronze II–III (EBII–III; 3100–2300 bce ) teeth from the site of Bab edh‐Dhra', located in modern‐day Jordan. Due to the commingling, general tooth groups (e.g. molars) and specific tooth types (e.g. lower left canine) were used to compare periods. Although age and sex could not be identified for every tooth, analyses of crania and os coxae showed no significant difference in demographic profiles of EBIA and EBII–III. No statistically significant increase was found over time in dental caries frequency; however, teeth for which the cause of pulp exposure could be determined suggested that caries increasingly led to exfoliation. Indeed, ante mortem tooth loss rose significantly with time, whereas dental wear decreased. In general, changes in oral health were consistent with an archaeological record of greater consumption of softer, stickier foods, such as fruits. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Middle Byzantine menu: palaeodietary information from isotopic analysis of humans and fauna from Kastella,Crete

We report here on the measurements of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes of bone collagen from the Middle Byzantine site of Kastella, in the city of Heraklion, on the island of Crete, Greece. The data derived from the analysis suggest a diet based primarily on terrestrial, C₃ protein, probably from animal sources, with the inclusion of some marine protein. The adult diet at this site is relatively uniform, with no detectable differences between average isotopic values for males and females. We also found that bone collagen δ¹⁵N values for a small number of juveniles decreased to adult levels after the age of two years, indicating that weaning occurred at or before this age. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.