New Method for Sex Prediction Using the Human Non‐Adult Auricular Surface of the Ilium in the Collection of Identified Skeletons of the University of Coimbra

Sex estimation in non‐adult skeletons is crucial in bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology. It was not extensively considered in the past, mainly because it was stated that the dimorphic osteological features were difficult to identify before adulthood. Over the past few years, this statement was disproved, and the study of numerous dimorphic non‐adult skeletal traits was approached. This paper presents a new methodology that evaluates the auricular surface of the non‐adult ilia. Several morphological and continuous variables were recorded for 34 individuals (21 females and 13 males) aged between 7 and 18 from the Coimbra Identified Skeletons Collection (University of Coimbra, Portugal). The results show low intra and inter‐observer errors for all the variables, which renders the methodology replicable. Two ratios related to the shape of the anterior area of the auricular surface offer the most dimorphic data (proportions of cases correctly assigned: 0.82 and 0.88; sexual allocation probabilities: 0.85 for both variables). A discriminant function and a logistic regression were developed, which correctly classified the 82.35 and the 88.23% of the individuals, respectively. Moreover, two qualitative variables, referred to as the overall morphology and the apex morphology , also show statistically significant differences between males and females (proportions of correct assignation: 0.82 and 0.76; sexual allocation probabilities: 0.79 and 0.76). These variables can be incorporated in a multifactorial approach together with other indicators already available in the specialised literature in order to help improve the accuracy of the results obtained. This methodological procedure has to be applied with other identified samples, including younger individuals, so as to test whether the trends presented in this context are maintained and are useful in populations from a different geographical provenience. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Health status of the Venda,a post‐antibiotic community in rural South Africa

This paper examines the health status of a rural African community during the emergence of Westernisation. A total of 157 skeletons, which included 120 adults (55 males and 51 females), 37 juveniles, and 14 individuals of unknown age, were analysed. Date of death ranged from 1910 to 1999, with the majority of individuals (52%) being buried after 1960. The bones were examined for infectious diseases, trauma and degenerative changes. More than half of the individuals in the sample had no pathological lesions on their skeletal remains. No cribra orbitalia was present. One case of leprosy and three cases of osteomyelitis were recorded. The most common findings were osteophytes on the vertebral bodies (syndesmophytes) (17%) and osteoarthritis (7%). The low occurrence of chronic disease is unexpected given that malaria was endemic and intestinal worms were common. Explanations for these results include adequate intake of iron from dietary sources, death from acute infectious diseases, administration of antibiotics, and poor preservation of adult skeletal remains. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Healed bone fractures in a jomon skeletal population from the Yoshigo shell mound,Aichi Prefecture,Japan

Healed bone fractures were quantitatively analyzed in an ancient Japanese population. The sample studied consisted of the skeletal remains of 160 adult individuals from the Yoshigo shell mound (ca. BP 3400‐2400), Aichi prefecture, Japan. Healed fractures were diagnosed from the presence of callus formation and/or angular deformity. Fractures were frequently seen in small bones of the hand and foot such as the metacarpals, rather than in large long bones such as the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula. Of a total of 517 intact large long bones, only four fractures (0.8%) were recognized. The prevalence and pattern of bone fractures in the Yoshigo population reflects the relative lack of stress in their life‐style. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Meul Index: A non‐destructive method for estimating the cortical index in skeletal samples

The study of osteoporosis in past populations provides insight into the history and evolution of this condition. The Cortical Index is a relative measure of cortical bone often used for identifying individuals with age‐related bone loss associated with osteoporosis. Current methods of measuring the Cortical Index involve radiography or cutting actual sections of long bones at the mid‐shaft. We propose a new index, the Meul Index as means for estimating the Cortical Index without the use of radiography. Based on a preliminary study of 13 individuals consisting of 9 males, 3 females and one unknown sex, ranging in age from young to older adult, the Meul Index is highly correlated with the Cortical Index (r = 0.903). The proposed Meul Index provides a non‐destructive and inexpensive means for studying age‐related bone loss in prehistoric and historic populations represented by skeletal samples. Our research builds on the recent publication of Silva, A.M., Crubezy, E. and Cunha, E. 2008. Bone weight: new reference values based on a modern Portuguese identified skeletal collection. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. DOI: 10.1002/oa.998. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The chronology of epiphyseal union in the hand and foot from dry bone observations

Dry bone data for epiphyseal union at the hand and foot are scarce, incomplete or inexistent. This study documents the timing of fusion of secondary ossification centres at the hand and foot in a sample of known‐age human skeletons. The sample comprises 92 individuals (49 females and 43 males), between the ages of 9 and 22 years, from the identified skeletal collection curated at the National Museum of Natural History in Lisbon, Portugal. Epiphyseal union was recorded on the right and left side at the long bones of the hand (metacarpus and phalanges) and foot (metatarsus and phalanges), and also at the talus and calcaneus, using a three stage scheme (non‐fused; partially fused and completely fused). In the hand, intra‐observer agreement was 99% and inter‐observer agreement was 98%. In the foot, both intra‐ and inter‐observer agreement reached 100%. Lateral asymmetry was not significant and only 1.1% of the individuals in the sample were found to be asymmetric in the stage of epiphyseal fusion (1.8% in the hand and 0.3% in the foot). A minimum mean advancement of 1–2 years in females relative to males was observed. In the hand bones, epiphyseal union occurred between 12–18 years in females and 16–18 years in males. Comparatively, in the foot bones, epiphyseal union occurred slightly later, with the exception of the talus and calcaneus, which are the earliest bones to mature. Data in this study can be used to estimate the age of unidentified skeletal remains, either directly or by aiding in the modification of incomplete or imprecise data that have been collected over the years. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ancient injury recidivism: an example from the Kerma period of ancient Nubia

A topical trend in clinical research has been the study of repeat trauma, referred to by clinicians as “injury recidivism,” which lends itself to the assessment of accumulated injuries among ancient people. The present investigation examined the healed injuries among two archaeological skeletal samples from the Kerma period (ca. 2500–1500 BC) of Sudanese Nubia. Both groups were known to have a high prevalence of multiple trauma—80% of 54 adults from the rural sites (O16 and P37) located near Dongola and 42% of 212 adults from the urban site of Kerma sustained nonfatal injuries. It was observed that a higher frequency of multi‐injured adults displayed one or more violence‐associated injury (cranial trauma, parry fracture). When all injuries were considered 38% of individuals with violence‐related injuries had other traumatic lesions in contrast to 22% of individuals who experienced injuries associated with accidental falls (e.g., Colles', Smiths', Galeazzi, and paired forearm fractures), although this difference was not significant. When only the skulls and long bones were evaluated 81% of adults with multiple injuries to these major bones bore one or more violence‐related injuries, while 60% of adults with single injuries sustained violence‐related injuries. Most individuals with multiple injuries were male and less than 35 years of age; there was no significant difference in the frequency of violence‐ or accident‐related multiple injury between the rural and urban communities. Although it cannot be established whether or not some of an individual's injuries were experienced during simultaneous or independent incidents, the pattern of multiple injury among these two ancient Nubian skeletal samples reflected the profile of injury recidivism observed by modern clinicians cross‐culturally. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bone weight: new reference values based on a modern Portuguese identified skeletal collection

Skeletal weight and/or weight of the different bones of the human skeleton are currently used in a wide range of applications such as archaeological cremations and forensics. Still, few reference values are available that compare the mean weights for the different skeletal parts. In this paper we present new reference values for total skeletal weight, including the weight of the different skeletal bones based on a modern Portuguese Identified Skeletal Collection (CEI) curated in the Museum of Anthropology of the University of Coimbra (Portugal). The mean weight of the entire skeleton for the CEI pooled sample is 3323.8 ± 779.6 g. Sex and age differences were investigated. As expected, males display heavier bones, at a statistically significant level. The mean weight of the male skeletons is 3850 g, and 2797.6 g for the female sample. Age differences were found, especially for the female samples in the 29–39 versus 50–59 and/or >60 age groups, probably as a consequence of age‐related bone loss in post‐menopausal women. For the male sample, no clear age‐related trend was observed but for the unexpected result that the second highest bone weight recorded is in the oldest age group (>60 years). This could result from high mechanical loadings and thus greater bone robusticy and amount of cortical bone. The percentage of weight of the different parts of the skeleton was also calculated. These new values can be quite useful in the study of very fragmentary and/or commingled human remains, recovered from historic or forensic contexts, since the complete identification, by side, of the remains is not necessary. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adult fracture patterns in prehistoric Thailand: a biocultural interpretation

The prevalence and distribution patterns of trauma in samples of human skeletal remains can reflect the risks to which the community was exposed in daily activities or as a result of interpersonal violence. This paper describes the patterns of non‐vertebral fractures in skeletal samples from four prehistoric Thai sites in terms of long bone fracture rates and individual prevalence rates. The sites range in date from c. 2000 BC (Neolithic) to 400 BC (late Bronze Age), and in environment from coastal estuarine to seasonally dry upland plains. These differences in the natural and cultural environment provided a basis for comparison among the samples representing nearly 300 adult individuals. The types of fractures ranged from simple to severe, but most had healed successfully with few limiting complications. The small bones of the hands and feet as well as clavicle and forearm bones were most frequently fractured among all samples. Overall there was an increase in the major long bone fracture rates from the Neolithic (0.3%) to the Bronze Age (3.0%) that may reflect a change in subsistence activities such as land clearance for the intensification of rice agriculture. The prevalence of ulnar fractures is particularly high in the Bronze Age, and the analysis of their possible cause, combined with evidence for craniofacial fractures, is suggestive of the presence of interpersonal violence in a small number of individuals. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Taphonomy,life history,and human exploitation of Rhinoceros sinensis at the Middle Pleistocene site of Panxian Dadong,Guizhou, China

Rhinoceros remains are commonly found in Chinese Pleistocene archaeological localities. This study examines the characteristics of the Rhinoceros sinensis sample from Panxian Dadong, a karst cave in the mountains of western Guizhou province, with a mammalian fauna in association with stone artefacts and human remains from the late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6‐8). The distribution of skeletal elements shows a predominance of foot (metapodial and phalanges) and lower limb (carpals and tarsals) bones, while the dental age‐at‐death profile, constructed using dental eruption and tooth wear data, is characterised by a high frequency of prime age adult teeth. There is little taphonomic evidence for the involvement of non‐human carnivores or natural agencies in the formation of the faunal assemblage. Instead, it appears that human activities were responsible for the unexpected prevalence of prime age adults. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal Manifestations of Skin Ulcer in the Lower Leg

Skin ulcers of the lower leg are known to cause both destructive and, more commonly, bone‐forming lesions. Typically, bone‐forming lesions in this disorder have clearly defined margins although there may be extensive reactive bone formation involving much or all of the adjacent diaphysis. These lesions are best described in patients from tropical areas, and in these environmental contexts, these are known as tropical ulcers, but leg ulcers can be caused by a variety of diseases and conditions, of which vascular insufficiency plays an important role among the elderly. The lesions are important clinically because of the disability associated with the ulcer and because of complications that can develop including osteomyelitis and cancer. In most cases, the bone lesions caused by ulcer are easily diagnosed in archaeological human skeletal remains and provide some insight into the prevalence of this disorder in antiquity. In this paper, we review the gross and radiological manifestations of bone lesions resulting from overlying skin ulcer in tibiae of 13 cases including archaeological and modern medically documented skeletons. In two of the cases, there is medical documentation regarding the presence of a chronic ulcer on the lower leg. The objectives of this paper were to explore the diversity of bone lesions associated with ulcers of the tibia and to provide an improved basis for the diagnosis of this disorder in human skeletal remains. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Elder Abuse: Evaluating the Potentials and Problems of Diagnosis in the Archaeological Record

The elderly are the most neglected demographic in archaeology. In today's youth‐obsessed society, the elderly are consistently denigrated, particularly those perceived to be physically or mentally frail. A related and growing concern in contemporary populations is the physical abuse of the elderly, believed to be an escalating phenomenon. This study is the first to examine the risk factors, social context and patterns of trauma associated with elder abuse in the present, with the aim of providing diagnostic criteria to apply to past societies. The utility of skeletal evidence in the identification of violent trauma has been detailed in cases of child and intimate partner abuse, both modern and archaeological. Investigating the skeletal evidence for elder abuse is potentially more complex because of the confounding physiological effects of the ageing process, lack of clinical research and contemporary ageist attitudes towards older people. Within the clinical and bioarchaeological literature, there has been a tendency to dismiss injuries in older individuals as the product of accident or opportunistic violence. A proportion of elder members of past societies is likely to have been victims of abuse and family violence. While there are no pathognomonic skeletal features of elder abuse, multiple injuries to the bones of the following are indicative: cranium, maxilla‐facial region, dentition, cervical vertebrae, clavicles, ribs and spiral fractures to the humeri. Attention is also drawn to decubiti as indirect skeletal indicators of immobility and possibly neglect. Archaeological context is important to consider, including non‐normative burials or those indicating social marginalisation. Bioarchaeological evidence has the potential to provide a long‐term perspective on the care and treatment of past elders. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Endocranial lesions in non‐adult skeletons: understanding their aetiology

Reactive new bone on the endocranial surface of the skull in non‐adults has recently received a lot of attention in the palaeopathological literature. These features appear as layers of new bone on the original cortical surface, expanding around meningeal vessels, as isolated plaques, ‘hair‐on‐end’ extensions of the diploë or, as ‘capillary’ impressions extending into the inner lamina of the cranium. These lesions are commonly found on the occipital bone, outlining the cruciate eminence, but have also been recorded on the parietal and frontal bones, and appear to follow the areas of venous drainage. Although recognized as resulting from haemorrhage or inflammation, their precise aetiology is still a matter of controversy. This paper outlines their possible causes and examines their nature and distribution in a group of non‐adults from four archaeological sites in England. It is recommended that, when recording these lesions in the future, additional skeletal pathologies, the age of the child, and nature and distribution of the lesions also be taken into account. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Metastatic carcinoma in a 14th–19th century skeleton from Constância (Portugal)

During 2002, the extensive archaeological excavations of the ancient Constância necropolis (Centre of Portugal), dated from 14th–19th centuries, resulted in the exhumation of 151 individuals. Among the several paleopathological cases, a middle‐aged female skeleton with osteolytic lesions in her skull, axial skeleton, upper limbs and femurs was observed. These pathological findings are characterised by an asymmetric pattern with osteolytic focus of distinct size and irregular shape. Some skeletal elements display both osteolytic and osteoblastic lesions. The latter exhibit deposition of fine layers of woven bone. Lesions were observed macroscopically and radiology was used as a complementary method of scrutiny, especially in cases of unclear observation. The case was diagnosed as that of a probable metastatic carcinoma due to the multifocal distribution of the lesions in areas of intense haematopoietic activity, their morphology and some osteoblastic responses, as well as the presence of pathological fractures in the ribs. The skeleton's sex and age at death are in agreement with the proposed diagnostic, constituting the first case of malignant carcinoma detected in non‐identified Portuguese human skeletal remains. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multicentric osteosarcoma associated with DISH,in a 19th century burial from England

Osteosarcoma is a rare type of malignant neoplasm that is most frequent in adolescents and young adults although it can develop at any age. It can metastasize from a primary site in bone to other bones and soft tissues. Usually the disorder causes a single bone‐forming lesion (unicentric) but some cases have multicentric, bone‐forming lesions. Some of these lesions develop at different sites at different times. In a second variant of multicentric osteosarcoma, synchronous bone‐forming lesions develop at multiple sites. Distinguishing between these two types of multicentric osteosarcoma is challenging in a clinical context and the criteria for doing so are unlikely to be met in an archaeological burial. Wolverhampton burial HB 39 was excavated from an early‐nineteenth century cemetery site in England. It consists of the incomplete skeleton of an adult male of at least 45 years of age with multicentric osteosarcoma. The individual represented by this burial also had diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). Three of the bone‐forming lesions associated with osteosarcoma developed on the bony outgrowths related to DISH. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pathogenesis of apical periodontal cysts: guidelines for diagnosis in palaeopathology

Apical periodontal cysts are benign lesions developing in relation to the apices of non‐vital teeth due to inflammatory response from the infective pulp. These are epithelium‐lined bony cavities containing fluid. Despite being widely reported in medical/dental literature, this common condition is poorly diagnosed and documented in the archaeological literature. We aim to clarify the correct terminology, demonstrate bony manifestations at different stages of pathogenesis of chronic periapical dental lesions into granuloma and apical periodontal cysts, and to describe diagnostic criteria which would provide practical guidelines for the diagnosis of these conditions. Three identified skulls from the International Exchange Collection, housed in the Anthropological Museum at the University of Coimbra, are used to identify the progression of this condition from a small periapical granuloma to a large apical periodontal cyst with expansion of alveolar and facial bones. The pathogenesis of this condition is described, together with its surgical management in the early 20^th century in Portugal, which is the period in which these individuals lived. Confusion resulting from the different terminologies can be avoided if the term periapical granuloma is used to define apical bony lesions smaller than 3 mm at their maximum intra‐bony diameter, and the term apical periodontal cysts for the larger lesions. We recommend that these terminologies and parameters be used as a standard in future studies. This will make inter‐observer and inter‐population comparisons more accurate. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

CT and micro‐CT analysis of a case of Paget's disease (osteitis deformans) in the Grant skeletal collection

This paper presents a case study in which Paget's disease of bone is differentially diagnosed in an individual from the Grant skeletal collection using non‐destructive computed tomography (CT) and micro‐computed tomography (micro‐CT) analyses of the pubis, in addition to plain film radiography and macroscopic examination. In archaeological and modern osteological samples diagnosis frequently relies on macroscopic examination, plain film radiography and histological examination of bone samples. CT and micro‐CT modalities provide researchers with a non‐destructive view of the internal structure of bone unhampered by the superimposition that is characteristic of plain film radiographs. Given the importance of the increased cortical and trabecular thickness in the differential diagnosis of Paget's disease, these techniques are ideal means by which to non‐destructively examine culturally‐sensitive and scientifically‐valuable human remains for signs of Paget's disease of bone. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal manifestations of vitamin D deficiency osteomalacia in documented historical collections

The frequency with which changes related to vitamin D deficiency are recorded in juvenile bone from archaeological contexts makes it clear that conditions conducive to such deficiency were fairly widespread at a number of points in the past. Although changes will take longer to be manifest in the adult skeleton than in juveniles, and may not be as obvious, the scarcity of reported cases suggests that it is likely that cases of osteomalacia are being overlooked in archaeological human bone. Vitamin D is probably better described as a hormone, rather than a vitamin, and the production of vitamin D within the body following exposure to sunlight allows adequate mineralisation of bone to take place. Lack of exposure to sunlight, which can be caused by a range of factors, is probably one of the main causes of vitamin D deficiency. The result of such a deficiency is a general weakening of the skeleton. The range of skeletal changes recorded across different bones of the skeleton in two documented historical pathology collections (the Galler collection, Basel, and the collection of the Federal Museum for Pathological Anatomy, Vienna), are discussed for scapulae, vertebrae, ribs, sterna, pelves and femora. The likelihood of each feature being preserved in archaeological skeletal material is considered. Although the changes associated with osteomalacia may lead to fragmentation of the skeleton, the presence of characteristic changes on bones from across the skeleton should make the condition identifiable using macroscopic examination, even where the skeleton is not well preserved. The identification of cases of osteomalacia in archaeological skeletal material is potentially significant because of the socio‐cultural information that can be implied from diagnosis of the condition. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Palaeobiology of the Medieval Population of Albano (Rome,Italy): A Combined Morphological and Biomolecular Approach

Recent years have seen increased interest in skeletal populations from the Imperial Roman Age in Italy, but much less is known about diet and standards of living in the subsequent medieval period. To fill this gap, we conducted a morphological analysis of human remains from Albano, an Italian town near Rome, as well as a stable isotope analysis of bone collagen to reconstruct diet. The sample was recovered from a Medieval cemetery (1040–1220 cal. yr. BP) located in the gardens of the historical Palazzo Doria Pamphili in Albano. A minimum number of 40 individuals (31 adults and 9 sub‐adults) were examined using standard methods. Though the general health status of the population was good, signs of cribra orbitalia and diffuse enthesopathies were noted during the morphological examination. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of the bone collagen from 24 adult humans and three faunal bones indicate that the diet of the population may be described as predominantly terrestrial and C₃‐plant based although the data for some of the individuals suggest a modest consumption of C₄‐(millet) based or aquatic proteins. No evidence of significant dietary differences between the sexes was found. The comparison of the isotope data from Albano with those from populations recovered in the same region is consistent with a shift from a terrestrial, possibly plant foods‐dominated subsistence in the Early Middle Ages to a diet with a higher contribution from animal proteins, both terrestrial and aquatic, in the Later Middle Ages. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Foot anomalies in the Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic population exhumed from the rock cut cave of São Paulo 2 (Almada,Portugal)

The study of developmental abnormalities of the tarsal bones in a Portuguese Late Neolithic population was performed, as part of an ongoing research project that includes the evaluation of foot defects in Portuguese skeletal populations from Neolithic times to modern 20th century samples. Two accessory bones were found, calcaneum secundarium and os trigonum, and three non‐osseous coalitions were detected, calcaneonavicular, cuboid‐navicular and third metatarsal‐third cuneiform. The newly presented frequencies corresponded to other published sources, except for the frequency of calcaneum secundarium, higher than in previous studies (8.6% left bones; 15.2% right bones). This result suggests population homogeneity maybe due to geographic isolation and/or marriage customs although the exact pattern of inheritance of the majority of these foot anomalies is unknown. No apparent sex bias was detected and side could not be tested since these human remains were uncovered from a commingled funerary context. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.