The Dynamics of Metropolitan Change

A collaborative research project entitled “Nested Dynamics of Metropolitan Processes and Policies” was initiated at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in 1982. The ultimate objective is to enhance our primitive understanding with respect to interacting metropolitan change processes which are operating at significantly different speeds. In this introductory paper, some aspects and results of the project are summarized prior to a short discussion of the three related papers which follow in this volume.     

The Dynamics Of Federalism

Wright, Deil S., Understanding Intergovernmental Relations
Walker, David B., Toward a Functioning Federalism
Hanus, Jerome J., The Nationalization of State Government
Hale, George E. and Marian Lief Palley, The Politics of Federal Grants     

The Social Dynamics of Everyday Life

The four books under review illustrate different ways of analyzing past societies through households, houses, and the conduct of everyday life. Grounded on the materiality, spatiality, and temporality of prehistoric data, spanning from the Palaeolithic through to the recent past, these books provide important archaeological contributions to the anthropological study of social organization, inviting challenge and interdisciplinary dialogue. Each book has a distinctive approach, yet all four reflect wider epistemological shifts toward a concern with context, scale, diversity, and interaction. In summarizing and critiquing them, most attention is paid to their social perspectives and definitions. This leads to consideration of related work in wider anthropology.     

美国现代城市郊区化动因初探

1970年,美国率先成为一个郊区化的国家,这与美国现代技术进步、经济发展、联邦政策以及美国的社会特征有着密切的关系。交通、通讯和能源技术的改进,为人口和产业向郊区的迁移提供了必要的前提;而经济结构的变化,比如企业规模、部门和地区结构的变化,使经济活动在郊区有更大的发展空间和效益;30年代大危机以来,联邦政府为了推动经济的发展和解决住宅问题,执行了一系列推动郊区化的政策,其中包括住宅抵押保险制度、住宅补贴制度和社区评估制度等;二战以来,黑人和少数民族在中心城的集中,加剧了美国城市种族矛盾,进一步了推动了白人中产阶级的郊区化。     

The Dimensions and Dynamics of Community Mores

If one posits there is such a thing as an American community, then one must also recognize that that community has been severed into two competing and often diametrically opposed visions of what America should be, with the chasm between them either impassable or potentially bridgeable, depending on your level of optimism. On one side are those who believe in a strong, exceptional America, grounded by those who largely practice the Jewish or Christian faiths but who at least believe in their utility as the basis for a moral code that teaches the virtues that sustain freedom in this country and keep America strong. On the other side are those who believe in an ever-evolving set of mores, based at any point in time on the current state of the collective wisdom of those who believe humanity itself is constantly evolving and improving, so long as it is not impeded by the often-confining strictures of the Jewish and Christian faiths.     

The Dynamics of Inclusion at the Dynamics of Inclusion in Public Archaeology Workshop Public Event

This paper describes, analyzes and critiques a public archaeology event created to demonstrate the methodologies of a dialogic archaeology. Collaboratively produced by the Wenner-Gren-sponsored Dynamics of Inclusion in Public Archaeology Workshop and the African Burial Ground National Monument, this event drew a capacity crowd representing diverse communities from the New York City region for a program dedicated to exploring public archaeology as it is, and has been, practiced in New York City. The on the ground actions involved in designing the event are explored here for insight into how communities form in, around, and with archaeology, while participant observation data gathered during the event is used to demonstrate the facilitating role archaeology and archaeologists play when a community uses the past for needs in the present. Feedback from several of the audiences attending the event, including the Workshop participants and other archaeological colleagues who were present, provide reflection on the aims and goals of public archaeology.     

The Location Invariance Theorem in Weberian Space Under Uncertainty

This paper examines the validity of the location invariance theorem in Weberian space under various types of uncertainty. The main results are: Given that the firm's location is constrained to remain at a specified distance from the output market, the optimal location is invariant to any change in product demand if and only if the production function is homothetic for a firm facing demand price uncertainty, or if the production function is homothetic and both inputs are risk-neutral for a firm facing technological uncertainty. Alternatively, given that the distance from the firm's location to the output market is a variable, location invariance occurs for a firm facing demand price uncertainty if the production function is linear homogeneous. In the presence of input price uncertainty the optimal location always varies with a change in product demand. The results can include those previously obtained for linear stochastic location models as special cases and some are new contributions to the literature.     

论英国艾德礼政府国有化实践的动力和制约

1918年,工党将实现“生产资料公有制”作为“工党的目标”在党章中确定下来。1929年的工党年会,增加了“分配和交换”,即将“生产资料公有制”改成“生产、分配和交换资料公有制”。这就是名的工党社会主义信仰条款,简称“第四条”。但直到艾德礼政府时期,工党才真正有机会去实践这个目标。长期以来,西方学术界极为重视对艾德礼政府的国有化问题的研究,如,弗朗西斯通过对该时期的国有化问题的研究,     

The Effect on Attribute Prediction of Location Uncertainty in Spatial Data

A datum is considered spatial if it contains location information. Typically, there is also attribute information, whose distribution depends on its location. Thus, error in location information can lead to error in attribute information, which is reflected ultimately in the inference drawn from the data. We propose a statistical model for incorporating location error into spatial data analysis. We investigate the effect of location error on the spatial lag, the covariance function, and optimal spatial linear prediction (that is, kriging). We show that the form of kriging after adjusting for location error is the same as that of kriging without adjusting for location error. However, location error changes entries in the matrix of explanatory variables, the matrix of co‐variances between the sample sites, and the vector of covariances between the sample sites and the prediction location. We investigate, through simulation, the effect that varying trend, measurement error, location error, range of spatial dependence, sample size, and prediction location have on kriging after and without adjusting for location error. When the location error is large, kriging after adjusting for location error performs markedly better than kriging without adjusting for location error, in terms of both the prediction bias and the mean squared prediction error.     

The Age of Clay: The Social Dynamics of House Destruction

This study provides some fresh insight into Neolithic domestic architecture through the analysis of architectural technology and the control over the practice of house construction and destruction. Examined on a regional or local level, architecture of the Neolithic is often presented as a fairly homogenous social practice over the large area of Southeast Europe. In viewing the Neolithic houses as homogenous and uncontroversial material culture, archaeologists have overlooked not only the possible variation and multimeaning of the Neolithic houses but also their striking and extensive means of destruction. The role of house conflagration, a practice that lasted during the entire Neolithic of Southeast Europe, has not been addressed in archaeological investigations. Indeed the phenomenon of burned houses has been treated as a series of lucky accidents during the Neolithic, which are primarily responsible for the preservation of Neolithic sites. Contrary this view, I argue that it is unlikely that the houses were burned as a result of a series of accidents or for any structural and technological reasons but rather that they were destroyed by deliberate burning and most likely for reasons of a symbolic nature. The causes for the practice of house firing and house abandonment as observed through the architectural evidence at the site of Opovo are believed to have been related to the need for house replacement and securing its postutilitarian visibility in order to show social and material continuity of the Neolithic society. In my view, a struggle for social and material continuity might have been a leading mobilizing force in creating and maintaining social practices and beliefs in the Neolithic society.     

Uncertainty as Environmental Education

Here we focus particularly upon some implications of the symposium articles for future research agendas and priorities in environmental policy. First, however, we return to the central question posed by this symposium: “How can environmental policies achieve a combination of democracy with legitimacy and adequacy with effectiveness under conditions of great uncertainty?” In different ways, all articles addressed this problem in reconciling democracy with competent environmental management under conditions of uncertainty. Together, they provide the rudiments of an answer.     

美国大都市区生态组织结构的形成及其成因

马克思曾经指出：“现在的社会不是坚实的结晶体,而是一个能够变化并且经常处于变化过程中的机体。”城市的发展同样如此。美国在20世纪20年代城市人口达到全国人口的一半以上,基本上实现了城市化,全国城市体系也逐步形成。同时,城市的规模不断扩大,城市的内部组织结构也发生了很大变化,出现了明确的功能分区,大都市区的生态组织结构开始形成并日趋成熟,成为20世纪美国城市发展的主导趋势。本文试图按照城市生态学的原理对美国大都市区的生态组织结构进行剖析,并从科技进步、经济效益、生态环境和社会文化等几个方面分析其成因。     

The Dynamics of Immigration and Local Governance in Santa Ana

This article examines the City of Santa Ana's responses to a changing urban landscape. We explore how the rapid growth of the Immigrant neighborhoods called into question traditional ways of municipal governance and city planning. We pay special attention to how the local government used land-use policy to protnote urban revitalization and bring substandard housing up to code. Initially the urban policy choices fueled neighborhood-based protest and exacerbated racial and dass tensions throughout the city; however, more recently the neighborhood activism has created a space for government reform.     

Masked Popery and Pyrrhonian Uncertainty: The Early Scottish Covenanters on Arminianism

In Jacobean and Caroline Scotland there was little Arminianism to be found, whether in its Remonstrant (Dutch) or Laudian (English) versions. Nevertheless, the representation of this teaching by a few Scottish divines, its more strenuous advocacy in England, and reports of its spread in Europe unnerved those who would lead the covenanting movement after 1638.
Arminianism represented a two-pronged threat to the Calvinist covenanting vision. Its attempt at moderation in the theological strife of the time approximated a compromise with, if not a surrender to, popery. But Arminianism also suffered from an identification with the scepticism then fermenting in European philosophy. The decay of a providential worldview undercut the national self-image of Scotland at the forefront of resurgent Reformed religion. The significance of free will threatened the individual's assurance of election. The loss of certainty about theological authority, accepting the individual's right to interpret the Bible and to express his views publicly, shattered the ideal of a religiously uniform society. Thus considered, the persistent interest in Arminianism provides a useful perspective on the mind of the covenanting movement.     

Policy Learning and Uncertainty: The Case of Pension Reform in Estonia and Latvia

This article addresses the question, under what conditions does the need for urgent solutions to societal problems lead to transferring a policy designed for another political system? The argument developed in the article is based on the theoretical frameworks of learning and historical institutionalism. I have posited that the urgent need for quick solutions to existing policy problems is a catalyst for policy transfer only if there is not enough prior successful experience with self‐designed policy reforms. The theoretical argument is tested using the case of pension reform in Estonia and Latvia, which proves to be difficult to explain with the arguments in the existing policy transfer literature.