Continuity Amidst Change: Village Organization and Fishing Subsistence at the Dionisio Point Locality in Coastal Southern British Columbia

Shifts over time in faunal representation in Northwest Coast archaeological sites have been viewed as reflecting changes in economic organization and social complexity. We use fish faunal data from the Parry Lagoon Midden (site DgRv-006) in the Salish Sea region of coastal southwestern British Columbia, Canada, to evaluate the relationship between change in subsistence strategies and community organization. We describe and compare fish assemblages recovered from a shell midden generated by habitation at two sequentially occupied village sites. The lower midden layers include faunal remains derived from the Marpole Period plankhouse village occupation at site DgRv-003 (1500 to 1300 cal BP), while the upper layers were generated during the occupation of a Late Period plankhouse within site DgRv-006 (1000 to 600 cal BP). We compare the two faunal records to ascertain if subsistence re-organization accompanied the social change associated with abandonment and later re-establishment of a village in the Dionisio Point Locality. Results indicate continuity of a diverse fishing economy for the two occupations, and therefore across the Marpole to Late Period transition. This study adds to the recent trend in Northwest Coast archaeology to reconsider the long-standing view that social and subsistence change necessarily occurred in tandem.     

Archaeological Site or Natural Marine Community? Excavation of a Submerged Shell Mound in Ninigret Pond,Rhode Island

ABSTRACT

Submerged shell midden sites and natural shell deposits can have similar characteristics and can be difficult to distinguish archaeologically. We excavated two test units from a large (at least 35 m×70 m) submerged shell mound in Fort Neck Cove in southern Rhode Island to assess whether it was natural or cultural in origin. This mound had been recognized as a potential archaeological feature as early as the 1970s. Excavation, radiocarbon dating, and subsequent laboratory analysis of excavated materials suggest that the mound was a natural oyster reef rather than a submerged archaeological site. No artifacts were found; there was no clear evidence for human modification of any shells; small species that would not have been targeted as food were present; and δ¹³C values of oyster shells from the mound were consistent with freshwater input into their growth environment, suggesting that they grew in an estuarine environment that did not exist prior to the inundation of the ponds. The stratigraphically oldest radiocarbon date we could obtain (430–190 cal BP, 2σ range), from 70 cm below the pond floor, placed deposition of shells at least 3,000 years after the inundation of the pond. The excavation methods that we used and the process of testing, irrespective of whether the feature is cultural, are valuable contributions to the methodological literature on submerged site archaeology and help provide insight for other researchers working to discern natural from cultural shell midden sites.     

Three-dimensional Distribution of Minerals in the Sediments of Hayonim Cave,Israel: Diagenetic Processes and Archaeological Implications

The mineral components of the sediments that accumulate in an archaeological site constitute a potentially rich source of information on the diagenesis, and in turn the archaeology of the site. This detailed three-dimensional study of the mineral assemblages in mainly the Mousterian sediments of Hayonim Cave incorporates more than 2100 infrared analyses performed on-site during the excavation, as well as diverse analyses in the laboratory. Three major mineral assemblages are identified: the calcite-dahllite (CD) assemblage, the assemblage comprising mainly montgomeryite, leucophosphite and siliceous aggregates (LMVS), and a highly altered sediment in which the clays have broken down and silica was released. The boundaries between these assemblages were mapped in detail. The overall picture is one of extreme heterogeneity with sharp variations occurring over distances of a few centimetres. The relation between the CD and LMVS assemblages shows that it is a product of post-depositional diagenesis, whereas the altered clay assemblage formed beneath an erosional unconformity. The CD and LMVS assemblages were derived primarily from an accumulation several metres thick of ash deposits produced by humans. Ash is thus shown to be a major component of the sediments of this cave. The distribution of the CD assemblage reflects to a large extent the locations of two active springs/seepages in the cave. The distribution of the CD assemblage also faithfully maps the distribution of bones in the cave, showing that their distribution is a function of preservational conditions and not human activities (Stineret al ., 2001). The conditions that produced the erosional unconformity, also resulted in severe alteration of the clays and other mineral components of these sediments. The erosion process and the fact that the thickness of this altered zone decreases towards the centre of the cave, indicates that the diagenetic driving force was probably climatic. The three-dimensional distributions of the mineral assemblages have a direct bearing on the dating of the cave by thermoluminescence and electron spin resonance.     

Kana Tamata or Feasts of Men: An Interdisciplinary Approach for Identifying Cannibalism in Prehistoric Fiji

By integrating osteological, taphonomic, archaeological and stable isotopic data, we test for cannibalism in the Lau Group, Fiji and discuss the potential underlying cause(s) and context(s) of this behaviour. First, we compare taphonomic and element representations of human skeletal material from two contexts in Fiji, examining human bone fragments from archaeological sites, including middens and burials in the Lau Island Group. Fourteen sites produced human remains. Only two of those sites included distinct human burial contexts, but in the remaining 12 sites, the human bone was recovered from middens or contexts where midden was mixed with possible secondary burials. A total of 262 number of identified specimens per species, representing an estimated 15 minimum number of individuals make up the Lau human assemblage. Second, we analysed bones contained in 20 individual human burials from four different sites that are housed at the Fiji Museum for comparative purposes. Third, we examine previously published stable isotopic (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) analysis of bone collagen to gauge protein consumption of likely cannibalised humans in midden contexts and potential cannibals from primary burials. We model a cannibalistic diet category within the context of isotopically measured Pacific Islands food groups and apply an isotopic mixing model to gauge plausible dietary contributions from six sources including human flesh. Isotopic mixing models of the Lauan samples illustrate a high diversity in reconstructed diets. The percent contribution of human flesh is low for all individual Lauans. We conclude that mortuary rituals evidenced by sharp‐force trauma may suggest non‐nutritive and non‐violent practices that may have included the consumption of small amounts of human flesh. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Intensification of shellfish exploitation: evidence of species-specific deviation from traditional expectations

As modern humans grapple with the repercussions of their extensive environmental impacts, archaeologists are increasingly looking toward the past to understand the nature and extent of prehistoric human impact on the environment. Many researchers rely heavily on archaeological correlates of resource intensification as a proxy measures of resource depletion, a profound and often catastrophic human impact. However, the traditional conceptualization of the archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification disregards a large amount of species-specific variation. This paper presents archaeomalacological data from Santa Cruz Island, California. The shell midden deposits CA-SCRI-480 contain a high density of Tivela stultorum (Pismo clam). Statistical analysis of the shellfish assemblage reveals significant variation in both the size and quantity of Pismo clam that people collected through time. This paper investigates this unique patterning with due consideration of the natural ecology and life history of the species and illustrates species-specific deviation from the traditional archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification. Increased collaboration with ecologists and biologists can help refine models of intensification when necessary in order create more sophisticated understanding of prehistoric human–resource interactions.     

Morphometric analysis of limpets from an Iron-Age shell midden found in northwest Portugal

The present work reports an analysis of a shell midden found in Terroso hillfort, an important Iron-Age oppidum located in northwest Portugal. The midden was dated from the latest phase of occupation of the hillfort, between the Ist century BC and the Ist century AD (Roman period), and contained 684 well-preserved Patella shells. The identification of archaeological shells was carried out comparing them with modern specimens collected in two shores in the neighborhood of the hillfort. The identification of modern shells was based on radula pluricuspid teeth and shell morphology. Relative abundance of Patella species in the Terroso midden was different from modern populations. Archaeological shells were dominated by Patella vulgata, but Patella intermedia was the most abundant species in modern populations. Dimensions of archaeological shells were very different from modern populations. Shell length range and variability in archaeological shells were lower than in the modern populations. Log height vs. length plots for archaeological shells were different from modern populations. Patella shells from Terroso midden was significantly taller then modern specimens. These differences between archaeological shells and modern populations could be due to environmental changes, namely an increase in wave action and intensity. These harsher costal conditions could have resulted from an alteration in the morphology of the coast, caused by a rise in the mean sea level from 2000 years BP to the present. Alternatively or additionally, the observed differences can be related to gathering strategies. Archaeological shells could have been selected by size, and collected preferentially at high shore and in sheltered sites.     

Isotopic evidence for diet in the Middle Chulmun period: a case study from the Tongsamdong shell midden,Korea

This article presents the first isotopic investigation of human and animal bone remains from the Middle Chulmun (3500–2000 BC) period in southeastern Korea. We have obtained a single human and associated faunal stable carbon and nitrogen isotope results from the Tongsamdong site, a coastal shell midden. Despite the discovery of domesticated plants and the existence of large amounts of terrestrial mammal bones from the shell midden, the human and dogs we measured were heavily dependent on marine protein resources for their lives. Although our stable isotope results are based on a small number of individuals due to the lack of human remains at this period, isotopic evidence suggests the possibility that Tongsamdong people in the Middle Chulmun period depended largely on marine protein resources. This isotopic evidence is consistent with the archaeological evidence from the site.     

Destruction of microstructure in archaeological bone: a case study from Portugal

Sampling of archaeological human bone may not be justified, contrary to former high expectations regarding adult age assessment based on histomorphometry. The alterations in buried bone as a result of bacterial action are readily visible in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). An understanding of the chemical and structural changes to cortical bone requires work at the level of a few microns. This paper reports on problems encountered during analyses of samples of human bone from Mesolithic (ca. 8000 calbp) shell midden sites at Muge in central Portugal, and the methods used to try and overcome these problems. We believe we have shown that these Mesolithic bones are partly comprised of bacterially reprecipitated mineral, which has had collagen removed, with consequent obliteration of bone microstructure. We conclude that microbial destruction of the structure of archaeological bone can be a serious impediment to analysis of the characteristics of the population represented by those skeletal remains. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identifying Shell Middens With Historic Aerial Photos: An Example From California's Santa Cruz Island

Using 1929 aerial photos of western Santa Cruz Island, we identified numerous potential shell midden locations, followed by confirmation of site locations via field reconnaissance. Heavy grazing by sheep, cattle, and pigs closely cropped island vegetation in the early twentieth century, exposing shell middens now often covered with thick vegetation. We discuss the potential and limitations of early aerial photos as aids to archaeological site identification and management in island and coastal settings. Although results varied from island to island, we found historic aerial photos to be extremely useful for documenting previously unrecorded sites on Santa Cruz Island, ranging from historical EuroAmerican sites to Island Chumash sites dating to as much as 7250 cal BP. These methods may also be applicable to other islands around the world subject to heavy livestock grazing in the past, especially where introduced animals have been removed and recovering vegetation now obscures archaeological sites.     

Sequential Incisions on a Cave Bear Bone from the Middle Paleolithic of Pešturina Cave,Serbia

We present the detailed analysis of a cervical vertebra from a cave bear, found at Pe?turina cave, Serbia, in a Mousterian archaeological level dated by radiocarbon at 43.5–44.6 kyr cal BP, and by ESR to between 93.5 and 102.5 kyr BP. Identified as a portion of the cranial articular facet, the fragment displays ten subparallel grooves. The microscopic study of these grooves and other surface modification present on the bone fragment, conducted with multifocus optical and confocal microscopes and complemented by a taphonomic analysis of the associated faunal assemblage, supports the hypothesis that the incisions were made by humans. Results are used to critically examine ambiguities implicit in the analysis and interpretation of early engravings, a category of material culture that has been playing a key role in the identification of early instances of symbolically mediated behavior.     

The Future Preservation of a Permanently Frozen Kitchen Midden in Western Greenland

Abstract

Archaeological materials may be extraordinarily well preserved in Arctic areas, where permanently frozen conditions in the ground slow down the decay of materials such as wood, bone, ?esh, hair, and DNA. However, the mean annual air temperature in the Arctic is expected to increase by between 2·5 to 7·5°C by the end of the twenty-?rst century. This may have a signi?cant warming effect on the soil and could lead to permafrost thaw and degradation of currently frozen archaeological remains. Here we present a four-year monitoring and research project taking place at Qajaa in the Disko Bay area in West Greenland. Qajaa is a large kitchen midden, containing frozen remains from 4000 years of inhabitation, from when the ?rst Palaeo-Eskimos entered Greenland, until the site was abandoned in the eighteenth century. The purpose of the project is to investigate current preservation conditions through ?eld and laboratory measurements and to evaluate possible threats to the future preservation.

Preliminary results show that the archaeological material at Qajaa is still very well preserved, but some microbial decay is observed in the exposed wooden artefacts that thaw every summer. Maximum temperatures are above 0°C in the upper 40–50 cm of the midden and between 0 and ?2°C down to 3 m depth. Thereby the permafrost may be vulnerable to quite small increases in air temperatures. Laboratory measurements show that the decay of the archaeological wood in the midden is temperature-dependent, with rates increasing 11–12% every time the soil temperature increases 1°C. Moreover, the soil organic material produces heat when decomposed, which could have an additional warming effect on the midden. At the moment the water or ice content within the midden is high, limiting the subsurface oxygen availability. Threats to the future preservation are related to further thawing followed by drainage, increased oxygen availability, microbial decay of the organic material, and heat production.     

Oxygen isotope analysis of California mussel shells: seasonality and human sedentism at an 8,200-year-old shell midden on Santa Rosa Island,California

To evaluate coastal settlement and land use strategies among maritime hunter-gatherers, we analyzed oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) data from 131 marine carbonate samples from 21 California mussel (Mytilus californianus) shells obtained from a large ～8,200-year-old shell midden (CA-SRI-666) on California’s Santa Rosa Island. Seasonal distributions of the isotopic data were assigned using a paleo-sea surface temperature model created by comparing modern sea surface temperatures (SST) to a fully profiled ～8,200-year-old shell. For 20 additional shells, we used two sampling strategies to compare season-of-harvest inferences and explore whether the Early Holocene site occupants were sedentary. Estimated season-of-harvest differed by 35 % between the two sampling methods, corroborating recent isotope analysis of an 8,800-year-old shell midden on San Miguel Island. Shellfish appear to have been collected year-round at CA-SRI-666 from intertidal or subtidal water temperatures similar to modern SST in the vicinity of eastern Santa Rosa Island. The isotope results are consistent with other evidence from CA-SRI-666 that suggest that the site served as a residential base for relatively sedentary maritime people.     

Palynological study of a Mi'kmaw shell midden,Northeast Nova Scotia,Canada

Before now, no palynological studies were made on shell midden deposits in Nova Scotia, despite a long history of archaeological research. A test study of samples taken from the shell midden at Maligomish (Indian Island) on the Northumberland Strait was conducted to determine if sufficient pollen, fern and moss spores, and other non-pollen palynomorphs (NPP's, including fungal remains, algal spores) could be recovered to allow interpretation of environmental conditions at the time of deposition. Several pollen processing methods were tested: sieving and swirling, chemical treatment with cold HCl, 5% KOH and brief exposure to 5% NH₄OH, and treatment with acetolysis solution. We recovered variable amounts of pollen, spores and NPP's from samples taken at 3–5 cm, 5–15 cm and 15–25 cm below surface. Abundant microcharcoal fragments prevented effective use of the swirling technique, but sufficient palynomorphs were recovered by chemical treatments to allow assessment of down-section changes in assemblages. Three radiocarbon ages from Mya arenaria and Crassostrea sp., and measurements of sediment grain size, moisture, organic and inorganic carbon, provide a framework for analysing palynological assemblage changes and context for interpreting differential palynomorph preservation. Despite some oxidation and microbial degradation of palynomorphs in the time interval (ca. 380–1600 cal yr BP), the midden assemblages correlate with pollen zones from marine and lake core sites within ca. 50 km of Maligomish. Shifts in abundances of algal spores, testate amoebae and aquatic plant pollen also indicate changes in depositional conditions during the time of midden use. The study provides the first reference for archaeologists attempting to use palynology for analysis of samples from Nova Scotian shell-bearing contexts.     

Identification of pastoral sites using stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes from bulk sediment samples: a case study in modern and archaeological pastoral settlements in Kenya

The identification of pastoral sites in the East African archaeological record is problematic. Recently, a method for the identification of degraded livestock enclosure sediments had been developed that takes into account the geoarchaeological indicators of micromorphology, phytolith concentrations and the mineral assemblages. This suite of indicators may not always be present in degraded livestock enclosure sediments. This study presents an additional indicator by which degraded livestock enclosure sediments may be identified, namely the isotopic composition of organic nitrogen measured on bulk sediment samples. We studied a highly controlled ethnoarchaeological sequence of abandoned Maasai livestock enclosure sediments sampled in Rombo area, southern Kenya. The results were compared to archaeological sediments from the Elmenteitan Pastoral Neolithic site of Sugenya, southwestern Kenya, radiocarbon dated to ca. 2000 BP (uncalibrated). The sediments from both sites were studied using all four types of analyses, i.e., micromorphology, mineralogy, phytolith concentrations, and stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions on bulk sediment samples. The results show that in abandoned livestock enclosure sediments of known ages a significant enrichment in the heavy nitrogen isotope (¹⁵N) occurs, and that carbon isotopic compositions may be useful for differentiating cattle from caprine enclosures following their dietary preferences (i.e., grazers vs. browsers). A similar pattern of ¹⁵N enrichment is observed in sediments sampled within the site of Sugenya while sediments sampled outside the site's perimeter are generally depleted in ¹⁵N. The micromorphological, mineralogical and phytolith analyses support the conclusion that the sediments from within the site of Sugenya represent degraded livestock enclosure sediments. The carbon isotopic composition from the degraded dung deposits strongly suggests that livestock kept at Sugenya were cattle. Overall, this study presents new empirical data that can be used for the identification of livestock enclosures, and shows that the isotopic signatures and geoarchaeological indicators can preserve for at least two millennia.     

The potential of chironomid (Insecta: Diptera) larvae in archaeological investigations of floodplain and lake settlements

The head capsules of chironomids (Insecta: Diptera) are well preserved in sediments and can be recognised to a high taxonomic level, usually genus and sometimes species. Work on lake sediments has shown that they can be accurate indicators of water temperature, oxygen regimes, and nutrient status (particularly total phosphorus and chlorophyll-a), as well as heavy metal pollution. No systematic chironomid analyses, however, have previously been undertaken on archaeological deposits. In order to address this we assessed the use of chironomids in three types of archaeological deposit; firstly, a lake core at the edge of a lake settlement (crannog), secondly, a palaeochannel infill adjacent to a multi-period settlement site and lastly, a Roman well deposit from a floodplain environment. The chironomid assemblages are shown to vary significantly both between and within the sites and reflect the immediate environment and the adjacent area. The lake sediment assemblage reflects the construction of the crannog through elevated levels of organic detritus, wood and woody debris. The palaeochannel assemblage reveals changing natural conditions and nutrient enrichment probably associated with settlement during the Saxon period. The well assemblage is taxonomically restricted and indicative of organic debris, dead plant material, animal dung and possibly human effluent deposited after abandonment of the well. Dry storage of the palaeochannel and well sediments for several years did not appear to affect the concentration or state of preservation of the head capsules. The chironomid reconstructions are shown to provide an additional indicator of human activity which has the potential to provide quantitative data on the character of aquatic environments associated with archaeological sites.     

Minero-petrographic characterization of fine ware from Cales (South Italy)

79 samples of black glazed pottery, Terra sigillata, fine common ware, and production indicators were recovered in the archaeological site of Cales and investigated via a multi-analytical program (polarized light microscopy, thermal analyses, XRPD, XRF, FESEM, FESEM-EDS). Among the materials, finds of important production indicators, represented by welded pieces of black glazed pottery and spacers, attest a local production. Polarized light microscopy shows that the inclusions consist of feldspar, quartz, mica, calcite, and lithic fragments of both volcanic and sedimentary nature. Additional information about the mineralogical assemblage comes from the XRPD that revealed the presence of neoformed Ca-silicates, indicating equivalent firing temperatures ranging from 750 to 1050°C. All the samples show a Ca-rich character and an extreme compositional homogeneity, including the production indicators. The comparison with some Ca-rich Campanian clay raw materials shows a greater affinity with the Mio-Pliocene marine clay sediments of the Apennine sector, which include local clays. This allowed us to formulate the first hypotheses about clay sources used to produce fine pottery during the third century BCE to the early imperial period in Cales.     

Evaluating Natural Site Formation Processes in Eolian Dune Sands: A Case Study from the Krmpotich Folsom Site,Killpecker Dunes,Wyoming

Eolian dune sands commonly contain archaeological material in both surface and buried contexts. However, because of the dynamic nature of dunes, the original context of an archaeological site can be severely modified or destroyed as a result of post-occupational geomorphic processes. This paper examines a Folsom occupation associated with a buried soil in the Killpecker Dunes in southwestern Wyoming. Field and labortory data are compared to determine the likely scenario of natural site formation processes responsible for the current context of the archaeological assemblage. Two primary eolian stratigraphic units are present at the site, and are separated by the buried artefact-bearing soil. Radiocarbon and optical luminescence ages indicate that the Folsom artefacts occur across a temporal hiatus, and that the buried soil is late Holocene in age. Sedimentological data indicate that the highest frequencies of artefacts by depth are associated with an erosional contact characterized by a concentration of coarse-grained material. Thus, the Folsom assemblage appears to have been vertically displaced as a result of post-occupational erosion and deflation. This case study indicates that evaluating the context of an archaeological occupation in a dune setting is best carried out utilizing multiple lines of evidence derived from both field and laboratory work.     

Human Palaeoecological Interactions and Owl Roosting at Tron Bon Lei,Alor Island,Eastern Indonesia

We report on tetrapod (Reptilia, Amphibia, Mammalia, Aves) vertebrates recovered during excavations at Tron Bon Lei rockshelter on the south coast of Alor Island, eastern Indonesia. These include both archaeological specimens recovered from a 1 m² test pit dating from ～21 kya cal BP to the late Holocene, and a modern eastern barn owl deposit recovered nearby. To discern between the depositional processes that accumulated the small numbers of micro- and macrovertebrate remains from the archaeological deposits, the taphonomic signature of the natural assemblage was quantified and compared to the archaeological record. The taphonomic data indicates that the tetrapod archaeofaunal remains are a combination of barn owl predation of microfauna and human predation of larger fauna. This approach provides new information on human-tetrapod interactions on Alor in Wallacea during the late Quaternary, including an apparent increase in cave site use and hunting intensity during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, sea turtle butchery and probable transport, and extinctions of previously unknown giant to large rat species.     

Sex estimation using cervical dental measurements in an archaeological population from Iran

Sex estimation of skeletal remains is one of the major components of forensic identification of unknown individuals. Teeth are a potential source of information on sex and are often recovered in archaeological or forensic contexts due to their post-mortem longevity. Currently, there is limited data on dental sexual dimorphism of archaeological populations from Iran. This paper represents the first study to provide a dental sex estimation method for Iron Age populations. The current study was conducted on the skeletal remains of 143 adults from two Iron Age populations in close temporal and geographic proximity in the Solduz Valley (West Azerbaijan Province of Iran). Mesiodistal and buccolingual cervical measurements of 1334 maxillary and mandibular teeth were used to investigate the degree of sexual dimorphism in permanent dentition and to assess their applicability in sex estimation. Data was analysed using discriminant function analysis (SPSS 23), and posterior probabilities were calculated for all produced formulae. The results showed that incisors and canines were the most sexually dimorphic teeth, providing percentages of correct sex classification between 86.4 and 100 % depending on the measurement used. The combination of canines and other teeth improved significantly the level of correct sex classification. The highest percentages of sex classification were obtained by the combination of canines and incisors (100 %) and canines and molars (92.3 %). The present study provided the first reference standards for sex estimation using odontometric data in an Iranian archaeological population. Cervical measurements were found to be of value for sex assessment, and the method presented here can be a useful tool for establishing accurate demographic data from skeletal remains of the Iron Age from Iran.     

The Ethnoarchaeology of Juvenile Foragers: Shellfishing Strategies among Meriam Children

Recognizing children's contribution to the archaeological record may be crucial for our ideas about the role of children in human evolution. Despite this, analyses of children's activities and how they might shape archaeological patterns are almost entirely absent from discussions about site formation processes. This may in turn result from the assumption that children are either inconsequential in their foraging activities or that identifying children's activities archaeologically will be difficult if not impossible. This challenge drew our attention toward children's intertidal gathering among the Meriam of the Eastern Torres Strait as a possible agent of patterned and predictable variability in shell middens. We present an analysis of differences between the prey choice and field processing strategies of children and adults and explore an hypothesis for predicting their archaeological effects on faunal assemblage variability.