Chinook Salmon,Late Holocene Climate Change,and the Occupational History of Kettle Falls,a Columbia River Fishing Station

ABSTRACT

Kettle Falls, located 1125?km from the mouth of the Columbia River in present-day Washington State (USA), was the second-most important salmon fishing and trading locus on that river in the early historic era. We encapsulate the late Holocene history of the fishery by deriving a summed probability distribution function (SPDF) from 50 radiocarbon ages from 13 archaeological sites within 2?km of the falls. When compared to an SPDF from 307 sites from elsewhere on the Columbia Plateau, and a null model, the Kettle Falls SPDF exhibits two phases of elevated activity at 1700–1300?cal BP and 800–500?cal BP, and an intervening lull. These phases are not related to the excavation history or differential exposure of sites to taphonomic processes, but they are concordant with episodes of glacial advance in the local mountains, which reflect hemispheric-scale changes in climate. Modern returns of summer-run Chinook salmon to the Columbia River are inversely correlated with sea-surface temperature regimes in the northeast Pacific Ocean, and we propose that the occupational history of the Kettle Falls fishery echoes long-term variations in the returns of salmon to the upper Columbia River linked to climate change.     

Mid‐Holocene Development of Mangrove Communities Featuring Rhizophoraceae and Geomorphic Change in the Richmond River Estuary,New South Wales,Australia

This paper describes the hitherto unreported occurrence of mid‐Holocene mangrove deposits in the Richmond River estuary, southeastern Australia, thereby providing evidence for changes in the distribution and composition of mangrove communities within a subtropical estuarine system during the Holocene. Stratigraphic, radiocarbon and palynological evidence indicates that widespread development of mangrove communities took place in the upstream reaches of the Richmond River estuary during the period 7000 to 6000 years BP. These communities maintained their habitat through substrate aggradation under the conditions of a moderate sea‐level rise, in contrast to other estuaries within the region, which generally experienced the submergence of intertidal substrates. Mangrove species belonging to the family Rhizophoraceae, most likely Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Rhizophora stylosa, dominated these communities, in strong contrast to contemporary communities, which are dominated by Avicennia marina. Moreover, these mid‐Holocene communities were located a considerable distance upstream of the contemporary occurrences of Rhizophoraceae species within the estuary. The changes in the spatial distribution and composition of mangrove communities parallel the large‐scale evolution of the estuary driven by sea‐level variation. Shallow, buried Pleistocene terraces probably contributed to the regionally unique aggradational response of the mangrove communities and their substrates to a sea‐level rise during mid‐Holocene times.     

Experimental Publics: Activist Culture and Political Intelligibility of Climate Change Action in the Hunter Valley,Southeast Australia

The ethnographic study of Western environmental activism opens up the prospect of studying subjectivities formed in opposition to dominant Western ideas and values, and yet encapsulated within Western societies and democratic polities. One of the directions in which it points the anthropologist, which is pursued in this article, is towards the study of the political lifeworlds of activists, their self‐identity as citizens and their embeddedness in the wider society. Environmental politics can be an emergent activity in citizens' lives, as expressed in John Dewey's concept of ‘the public’ as citizens who organise themselves to address the adverse consequences of situations that they experience in common (Dewey 1991[1927]). This paper focuses on a middle ground of social action between habitual daily practice, and the domain of institutional politics: groups of people in small voluntary organisations in the heavily coal‐mined Hunter Valley, Southeast Australia, who are moved to collective action to address the threatening aspects of anthropogenic climate change. Action group members variously articulate their reflexive understandings of the structural contradictions of environmentalism in corporate capitalist societies where values of consumerism and processes of individualization corrode collective concerns of citizenship‐based politics. These understandings inform activists' personal motivations, values and ideals for a ‘climate movement’, diverse modes of political action and striving for wider political intelligibility.     

Non-destructive Provenancing of Ground-Edged Mafic Artifacts: A Holocene Case Study from the Sydney Basin,Australia

Ground-edged artifacts were an important part of the Australian Aboriginal toolkit. They had practical day-to-day uses, but some had symbolic and social values that led to their movement across great distances. Australian provenance studies document long-distance Aboriginal exchange systems extending over hundreds of kilometers. The size and complexity of exchange systems and social networks were contingent upon resources and the productivity of a region's environment. Along the fertile, well-watered lands east of the Great Dividing Range, movement of objects may have been geographically more circumscribed than in drier areas to the west. One hundred and twenty-one mafic, ground-edged artifacts from the New South Wales (NSW) Central Coast and 368 geological specimens from potential sources were non-destructively analyzed by portable X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry. Results indicate the existence of a well-used basalt source within the region at Peats Ridge-Popran Creek as well as multiple local and non-local sources up to 430?km from Mangrove Mountain on the NSW Central Coast.     

Mapping 100 Years of Thornthwaite Moisture Index: Impact of Climate Change in Victoria,Australia

Geographer C. W. Thornthwaite proposed in 1948 a moisture index called Thornthwaite Moisture Index (TMI) as part of a water balance model for a new classification system for climate. The importance of TMI climatic classification has been recognised in many areas of knowledge and practice worldwide over the last 60 years. However, although past climate research was focused on developing adequate methods for climate classification, current research is more concerned with understanding the patterns of climate change. The use of TMI as an indicator for climate change is still an incipient area of research. The contributions of this paper are twofold. First, it is to fully document a methodology based on geostatistics adopted to produce a time series of TMI maps that are accurate and have high spatial resolution. The state of Victoria, in Australia, over the last century, is used as the case study. Second, by analysing these maps, the paper presents a general evaluation of the spatial patterns found in Victoria related to moisture variability across space and over time. Some potential implications of the verified moisture changes are discussed, and a number of ideas for further development are suggested.     

Demographic Change,Differential Ageing,and Public Policy in Rural and Regional Australia: A Three‐State Case Study

This paper takes a differential demographic change in six rural settlement categories within rural and regional Australia as the starting point for the measurement of differential ageing using a Relative Ageing Index which compares ageing in sub‐populations with the national norm. The spatial units employed are 412 rural communities, approximated by social catchments each consisting of a country town and its surrounding dispersed population. The study covers the period from 1981 to 2006 and includes the rural areas of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, excluding major cities, peri‐urban areas, and the remote rangelands. It examines demographic change and differential ageing in a selection of the rural settlement categories recommended for further analysis in the report of the ‘Demographic Change and Liveability Panel’, one of three advisory panels established in 2010 by the then Commonwealth Government seeking to develop a sustainable population strategy for Australia. Ageing profiles are produced for the whole study area, for the individual rural settlement categories, and for the urban and rural components within each category separately. Results show that differential ageing is least advanced in the ‘regional cities’, most advanced in the ‘sea change’, but of most concern in the agriculture‐based rural settlement categories where it exacerbates the effects of overall population decline. In all categories, ageing in the dispersed rural population element exceeded that of the urban component. Results emphasise the vital role of the ‘regional cities’ category in future public policy development supported by ameliorative and collaborative measures for their surrounding agriculture‐based communities.     

Reverend James Macdonald Auld and the disintegration of traditional leadership in Xhosaland

This article examines the missionary assault on traditionalism and traditional leadership. It also analyses the origins of Columba Mission. The article sets out to unearth the role of missionaries in the colonial assault on traditionalism, using James Macdonald Auld (2 April 1848–5 December 1932) as a case study. It describes the operation of the Columba Mission from its small beginnings in Kentani (Centane today) in 1878 until the annexation of Gcalekaland by the Cape Colony in 1885. The Cape forces reopened Gatyana (Willowvale) to the colonial authorities following the acceptance of an amnesty. Many of the amaGcaleka remained in Xhorha (Elliotdale), including King Sarhili himself. King Sarhili’s vicissitudes at the hands of the colonial government are used as a scaffolding to see Columba in historical perspective. This article puts the spotlight on King Sarhili and James Macdonald Auld, the Presbyterian missionary at Columba, as a vehicle to explore the reorganisation of Centane. The article also broadens its base of sources by drawing on oral history with intent to add materially to our knowledge about the missions at that often opaque moment in Eastern Cape history. In attempting to examine the relations between the traditional leaders, the colonial governing authorities and the missionaries, this article shows the colonial conflict as an ongoing encounter between the missionaries and the heirs of Phalo, i.e. the amaGcaleka and the amaNgqika     

铜瓦厢决口后黄河下游河道沿岸区域地形与河湖环境(1855-1911)

1855年黄河于铜瓦厢决口北徙,给下游沿岸区域地形与河湖环境造成很大影响。山东运河以西的平原地带距离决口处较近,泥沙淤积较多,地形抬高幅度明显,黄河在此区内漫流,扰乱了原有水系。汶、泗二河下游地带受黄河淤高河床的顶托,亦出现排水困难的局面,东平湖的形成与扩大即区内积水不断增多的结果。鲁中丘陵西侧平原地带,受黄河淤高河床的阻挡或黄水倒灌影响,长清至齐东各县境内的入黄河流均难以宣泄,直接促成新清河的开辟。徒马平原地带,受黄河决口改道影响,靠近黄河的徒骇河诸多支流被淤没,徒骇河则被黄水冲宽刷深,1907年黄河利津决口后,其尾闾河段亦被淤没。     

先秦时期珠江三角洲环境变迁与文化演进

本文利用考古材料和多学科的研究成果,分析了先秦时期珠江三角洲的环境变迁与文化演进的关系。文章指出,如果自然资源丰富、种类多样互补和易于攫取,也能发育丰富多彩的、甚至是分层化的擢取经济文化,珠三角网河平原南部的渔猎采集和北部的渔捞采集经济文化,就是两个典型的实例。东周时期冲积平原火耕水耨经济文化的发展繁荣,促成珠江三角洲这个自然地理单元形成文化地理单元,又说明合理的区域文化也不可长久背离人类文化的发展方向。     

Change and continuity in strategic culture: the cases of Australia and New Zealand

The relationship between strategic culture and defence policies has not yet been much explored. Australia and New Zealand provide some evidence of the impact of strategic culture on defence policy. Australia has a dominant strategic culture which is strong enough to prompt both the major political parties to adopt realist defence policies, even though Labor has a traditionally ‘idealist’ outlook. Until the 1970s, New Zealand had a similar dominant strategic culture which influenced both major political parties, but it was always less strong than Australia's. In recent years, the Labour Party has rejected that culture, and allowed an alternative strategic culture based on its ideology to influence its defence policies. The result has been that on the last two occasions when Labour has been in government, New Zealand's defence policy has changed dramatically.     

A River Runs Through It: Morphological and Landowner Sensitivities Along the Upper Missouri River, Montana, USA

Landowners along the Missouri River in Montana believe that the operation of Fort Peck Dam has initiated bank erosion, thus threatening agricultural development within the region. Their concerns have been heightened by proposals to increase discharge in order to enhance fisheries and wildlife interests. Geomorphological evaluation indicates that bed degradation and bank erosion have declined since construction of the dam, and the channel is now approaching dynamic equilibrium; public sensitivity to the proposed change is greater than the morphological sensitivity of the river. Sustainable management of the Missouri is now based on strategies that place more emphasis on partnership with local citizens.     

The Design,Application and Evaluation of an Effective Subsurface Sampling Strategy: Detecting Holocene Knapping Floors in Southeastern Australia

Subsurface sampling programs are regularly employed to detect buried archaeological material in open landscapes. Rarely, however, is the effectiveness of the sampling program assessed through subsequent excavation. Here, an optimal subsurface testing strategy is designed using Kintigh’s simulation approach to locate prehistoric knapping floors and is applied to an open landscape in southeastern Australia. Several prehistoric knapping floors were discovered using this strategy and nine of these were subsequently excavated to establish their diameters, densities, and density distributions. The results indicate that there is a high level of divergence between test-pitting data and excavation data. This demonstrates that test-pit data cannot be assumed to provide an accurate representation of site characteristics. It follows that an empirical validation of site characteristics through subsequent excavation is needed before a meaningful evaluation of the effectiveness of a sampling strategy can be conducted.     

The Historical Geographies of Showing Livestock: a Case Study of the Perth Royal Show,Western Australia

This paper examines changes in the entries of livestock to competitions at the Perth Royal Show in the course of the twentieth century. It identifies trends in the showing of animals at the Show and explains these with reference to the wider geographies of state and national agricultural change in Western Australia (WA). In doing so, it provides a longitudinal perspective on the socioeconomic contexts of farming in WA and identifies some of the key cultural and economic drivers that have influenced livestock farming in that locality. In turn, these findings contribute to wider understandings of the global countryside and of the imagined ruralities that exist within and beyond the spaces of showgrounds.     

钱塘江河口涌潮强弱的历史变迁(1471-2001)

整理《中国近五百年旱涝分布图集》及其"续编""再续编"中1471-2000年间浙江金华与安徽屯溪两个站点的旱涝指数,将其作为反映钱塘江年径流量波动的指标,根据1950-2000年实测的钱塘江径流大小与海宁盐官站潮差和涌潮大小的相关关系,推断出五百余年来钱塘江涌潮强度变迁趋势。经检验,钱塘江流域旱涝指数特征与史料所载涌潮异常年份相符,且指数序列与同时期海宁盐官历年最大潮差值序列之间的相关系数具有较强相关性。将现代实测盐官历年最大潮差与旱涝指数拟合,得到函数关系式为y=-7.2x2+40.3x+580.1(其中x为旱涝指数,y为盐官年最大潮差)。又根据盐官潮差与涌潮高度间函数关系推出了明中期以后盐官历年涌潮最大强度,并绘制了1471-2001年间的钱塘江涌潮强弱变化曲线图。     

Post-flood assessment of emergency evacuation policies in the Red River basin, Southern Manitoba

A discrete choice experiment (DCE) was used as a part of a post‐flood survey among the residents of four small urban communities on the Red River ‐ Emerson, Morris, Ste. Agathe, and St. Adolphe ‐ to assess their preferences for emergency evacuation policies. The respondents were asked to choose repeatedly among three hypothetical evacuation policies described in terms of (a) the type of evacuation (mandatory, voluntary, no evacuation), (b) notification time for evacuation (1, 2, 4 days), (c) post‐evacuation flood relief (75%, 80% current, 90%), and (d) an overall evaluation of the risk of hazardous flooding, i.e. chances of over‐dike flooding or breaching through dikes (99%, 75%, and 50%). The survey results indicated that, despite significant differences between Ste. Agathe and other communities in the magnitude of impact of the 1997 flood, overall, a voluntary evacuation seemed to be preferred at the 50 percent risk of hazardous flooding; whereas the preference for a mandatory evacuation was related to a 99 percent risk. A notification time of 2 days for evacuation was preferred over that of 1 day but the preference for 2 days was not statistically different from that of 4 days. In both types of evacuation a 10 percent increase in the amount of flood relief was preferred over the current amount of 80 percent and the marginal utility of a 5 percent decrease was nearly equivalent to the suggested 10 percent increase. Because of such ability of the DCE to assess tradeoffs of alternative choices/policies, the paper suggests further applications of the model for eliciting floodplain residents' preferences for various flood management issues. Dans le cadre d'une enquête effectuée auprès des résidents de quatre petites communautés urbaines ‐ Emerson, Morris, Ste‐Agathe et St‐Adolphe ‐ à la suite des inondations de la rivière Rouge, les préférences du public quant à la politique à suivre en cas d'évacuation ont étéétudiées. L'évaluation a été menée à partir d'un modèle à choix discret. Les personnes interrogées devaient choisir entre trois hypothèses d'évacuation, hypothèses établies sur les bases suivantes: a) le type d'évacuation (obligatoire; volontaire; non‐évacuation); b) le délai accordé avant l'évacuation (1, 2 ou 4 jours); c) les secours procurés à la suite de l'évacuation (75%, les 80% actuels, 90%); et, d) une évaluation d'ensemble des dangers d'inondation, par exemple, les possibilités qu'une digue soit submergée, ou que les digues rompent par endroits (99%, 75% et 50%). Les résultats de l'enquête montrent que, dans l'ensemble, malgré une différence significative dans l'importance de l'impact de l'inondation de 1997 à Sainte‐Agathe et dans les autres communautés, le choix d'une évacuation volontaire était préféré quand ne se présentait qu'une possibilité d'inondation de 50 pour cent; la préférence pour une évacuation obligatoire n'étant indiquée que dans le cas de 99 pour cent de risques d'inondation. Un avertissement avant évacuation de 2 plutôt qu'l jour était préféré par les personnes interrogées, mais, statistiquement parlant, il n'y avait pas de différence notable entre un choix de 2 ou de 4 jours. Dans les deux types d'évacuation proposés, on préférait une augmentation de 10 pour cent des secours par rapport aux 80 pour cent actuels, l'utilité marginale d'une baisse de 5 pour cent étant presque équivalente aux 10 pour cent d'augmentation suggérés. En raison des possibilités qu'offre un modèle à choix discret pour évaluer les compromis possibles entre les différents choix et politiques d'évacuation proposés, cet article suggère que d'autres études à partir d'un tel modèle soient menées afin d'établir les préférences de ceux qui résident dans des plaines susceptibles d'inondation quant à la prévention et à la gestion de ces inondations.     

1世纪至20世纪中期上荆江流域河道与水环境变迁——基于荆江洪水位历史变迁的考察

清中叶以降,清宫档三汛(桃花汛、伏汛、秋汛)安澜奏本中所见荆江洪水位开始日益上涨,咸丰、同治年间,藕池、松滋决口向洞庭湖分流后,水势稍有缓解,至光绪年间复又急速抬升。不断上涨的洪水位对江北入江河流造成了两方面影响: 其一为河道的变迁,其二为水环境的变化。在沮漳河流域,涉及长江百里洲的变迁,沮漳河入江口的变动,长江主泓迁移,下百里洲靠岸及洲尾东摆引发沮漳河下游延长,以及山水、江水相互顶托造成水环境淤积。在玛瑙河流域,则表现为荆江洪水位抬升对河水的顶托现象,导致入江尾闾沼泽化。     

Estimates of Historical Tree Densities in the North Lachlan River Catchment,New South Wales,Australia

Vegetation structure and composition during the pre‐ and early‐European period in Australia is often proposed as a benchmark against which to measure the effects of modern landscape management practices. However, little quantifiable information exists for that historical period. One potential source of information is the land survey record, used in this study to provide estimates of tree densities that existed during the period 1870 to 1900 in part of central New South Wales. Estimates were obtained for 23 parishes in the north Lachlan River valley, between the towns of Condobolin and Tottenham. Densities were calculated from portion corner to nearest tree data obtained from historical survey plans, using the plotless, closest individual method. Densities ranged from 6.0 to 31.4 trees per hectare for parishes with enough data points for reliable calculation. These figures would account for trees of a diameter large enough to be blazed with a survey mark. Any smaller trees would be additional and, although no quantitative data existed for this, qualitative evidence suggested that the figures obtained were more likely to be underestimates due to the presence of such small trees. The study area was predominantly covered by woodlands which varied in density across the landscape, in comparison to the modern landscape where much of the native vegetation has been cleared for agriculture. Although the tree density figures should be considered to be indicative rather than precise, they provide quantifiable historical figures for past conditions in an area where the historical record is otherwise sparse. Such information is valuable for interpreting ecological changes brought about by modern land management.     

A Constructivist Approach to Climate Change Teaching and Learning

It is now broadly acknowledged that climate change due to an enhanced Greenhouse Effect is underway and such change will have major implications for our societies and environments. This paper outlines a pedagogical approach devised to encourage learning and critical thinking about climate change. A constructivist approach to teaching and learning is applied to stimulate analysis of potential impacts of climate change on systems familiar to secondary school students in South Australia. The problem‐based method guides students through a conceptualisation of the implications of environmental change. Students at Woodcroft College, when given the opportunity to examine the potential climate change impacts on a local coastal ecosystem, found the method to be both challenging and engaging. The exercise concluded with students discussing possible personal behavioural and broader societal responses to reduce the impacts of future climate change. The paper contends that such teaching to support students to become resilient young adults will be vital in a future world of environmental risk.     

清代淮河流域旱涝灾害的人为因素分析

本文根据历史文献的记载,对清代淮河流域的水旱灾害进行了量化分析,得出了此时期旱涝灾害发生的基本情况。淮河流域的旱涝灾害有的是纯自然力所为,但更多的是人们利用自然的失当所致。本文主要从人为活动因素即人类的不当行为入手,对清代淮河流域旱涝灾害发生的原因作一初步考察。